Thursday, December 31, 2015

What Is A Drawing Room In The Country That Knows Construction Maintains A Priced??



What is the Truth of berth to Harbor,
the pier of that is the pilings?? on the once upon on dressage court of letters on the Games??,
an Olympic Torch to be the Compass of Composition touching the Meddle??,
is trip to journey the Journal of that At hand??
a Hofbrau??,
the roast beef??,
the staff on that particular daisy of the chain once the Haight??,
sew the fiber on the bread??,
beads on the in sane??,
treasure to the pan door Awe??,
porches with the most enormous knockers??,
weighted buy the touch of Whom put to stride the opening??.

Nice to the greet and munch to the plumb,
hose to that the lawn or the Nylons or the process of watering the grass??
spouts on the bathing house to shower the flour with egg Soup skull at stands??
treats with Trick of Feather to quilts sheets on notes with cliff tangible bare??
trips to that free way on the gear a deli sand a which??
salami with the sour dough to know that Sal is also laughing playland at Mécanique??
slides with burr lap or is it the gunny sack on the I rack??

Steep are the Whistles to the Grow^Sir reed,
Marsh the Bog of a loggers driven by real People person Name Mr. White!!,
silent??,
no the presence to the gift of why must the forest be a grove??,
that Mill or the labor of Work on the key??,
shall the dance Sing to tune??,
does the Radio blast or is the Television a Crone??,
wine in the barrel grapes on the vine??,
wares are the formal Introduction to three Sill a bulls??.

These do not dye the read to type the rider??,
should the Staircase at the Stare Case be of Library or in Cycle of the sike Lo Pea dee eh??,
does that Footman mark the Carriage or branch to that Rein??,
can snail be of a Trail??

Banana and Year to this Next nestle of the Cuddle to the English,
language From??,
to that is the Missing link In or On??,
corner fracture to the fracking??,
dives to digs the Ashbury to that Panhandle??,
blood banks on the Masonic??,
where hour is the minute on the Timer for the buzz ore of this simple Question,
is it as simple as the move ease??,
a Room^EAN House to the I in gee on the chalk let of the Out line of a Dam??

Curt see to that is the remember the Man,
the avenue of the division as the Ad diction to the thermal chills of this World on the strongs??,
now is it the a diction for the fact tore or the X marks the Spot Tier??,
sync Width of Cave to channel the black to value giant or giant value to that Snorri,
as the frames are glasses on the fill what say crowds on the signed??,
package of cheer or that Bar side Pool side of the que Stick figure Rean??

What Are The Notes To Singing In The Rain Should The Letter State Know??

11:14 AM ~ December 31st, 2015



Rules for Spelling

     Reduced to utmost and ultimate simplicity, the rules for good spelling are as
follows:
     1--If a word ends in a mute, the is dropped when a termination beginning with
a vowel is added: hope, hoping; true, truism; guide, guidance.  But note certain in-
stances in which e must be retained to hold the sense, as in dyeing, distinguished from
dying; singeing, distinguished from singing.  Also, there are complications as between
lineage, measurement by lines, and lineage, a line of descent.  In the former sense the
spelling linage has gained great popularity.
     2--A silent at the end of a word is retained when an ending beginning with
a consonant is added: hate, hateful; incite, incitement; move, movement.  Exceptions
occur when the silent e is preceded by a vowel, as in argue, argument.
    3--In monosyllables or words accented on the last syllable, a final consonant fol-
lowing a single vowel is doubled before endings that begin with a vowel: abel,
abetted; begin, beginning; wit, witty.  Words of this group ending in s show some
variations.  Thus we have gas, gassy, but gaseous.  When the accent is thrown back,
in the derivative form, the consonant is not doubled.  Thus we have preference, not
preferrence.  In British usage a final is doubled: traveller, kidnapping; but American
practice is quiet generally in favor of the single consonant, as in canceled, chiseling,
kidnaper, leveling, quarreled, reveling, traveler, worshiper.
     4--When a word ends in e. k  is added before and ending beginning with e, i, or
y, as in colic, colicky; traffic, trafficking; panic, panicky.
     5--When a word ends in a double consonant, this ending is commonly retained
in derivatives made by adding one or more syllables, as odd, oddly; ebb, ebbing; stiff,
stiffness.  But there is variant usage in connection with words ending double l,
as enroll, dull, skill, and along with enrollment, dullness, skillful we find enrolment,
dulness, skilful.  In adding -ly to a word ending in double l, two l's are used: dully.
     6--In forming derivatives of words ending in y preceded by a consonant, the y
is commonly changed to before any termination not beginning in i: dainty, daintily;
mercy, merciful; modify, modification.  Thus we have flying but flier; dryness but
drier.  Some do write drily, but the better usage is dryly.  As in all rules for English
spelling, it is necessary to note certain exceptions: day, daily; lay, laid; pay, paid;
say, said.  Some persons write stay and staid, but as we have as adjective in the
latter form it is generally considered better to write the verb stayed.  There is vari-
ance of usage also in derivatives of gay: gaily or gayly, gaiety or gayety.


Spelling
_________________________________________________________________________
     7--Where -ing is used to form derivatives from words ending in -ie, the being
dropped (Rule One), the changes to y: die, dying; tie, tying; vie, vying.  (Do not
confuse dying with dyeing, using dye.)
     8--When a syllable beginning with a vowel is added to a word having a vowel
ending, the vowel ending is generally retained: echo, echoing; woo, wooer.  The ex-
ceptions to this rule are simple and easily mastered: When the word ends in silent e,
the e is dropped before an ending that starts with e, as sue, sued; and when the stem
word ends in double e, only two e's appear in the derivative, as in agree, agreed.
     9--As a rule, noun and adjective from the same stem word in -ant or -ent have
the same vowel in the derivative: attendant, attendance; dependent, dependence.  In
determining whether the ending should be -ant or -ent, -ance or -ence, the student
of Latin has some advantage, for the forms are from Latin verbs of the first con-
jugation (-are), and the e forms go back to verbs in the other conjugations.  A curious
exception is in the noun confidant, which seems to conflict with the adjective form
confident and the abstract noun form confidence.  Confidant is taken straight from the
French; the verb confide and its derivatives trace back to the Latin verb confidere.


Variant Styles

     In some matters of spelling the student has choice of different usages, all supported
by good authority.  Anyone experiencing difficulty in making decisions will do well
to follow the dictionary, and look these words up until through repetition he has
formed the habit of correct spelling.  Keeping a pocket notebook with LISTS OF WORDS
in the different groups will supply the student with ready reference supplementary
to his use of the dictionary.
     First, the prefixes in and en, combining with verbs and their derivatives, may be
puzzling.  The former is Latin; the latter comes from the French.  Infold is now
more commonly used than enfold.  Where the meaning is unmistakably that of
in-ness, in is likely to be correct.  But it is to be borne in mind that there are many
words, like enchant, in which the prefix does not mean "in" but has merely an in-
tensive force.
     Usage is more firmly fixed with regard to -er and -re: theater, theatre.  Dr. Worcester
adopted the British form, -re; Webster gave common currency to -er.  But it is to
be noted that in some words the choice is not offered: acre, lucre, ogre.
     Similar to -er, -re are the -ise, -ize and -or, -our problems.  The -ise and -our spell-
ings, as in analyse and honour, are British.  American usage is heavily in favor of
the -or form, as in color, but is mixed on -ise, -ize.  We write  advertise, comprise,
disfranchise, exercise, supervise.  But in many words we give special force to the -ize
ending--principally where it is added to a whole word in familiar use, as Americanize,
circularize.  The -ize ending reflects the Greek, the -ise form comes from the French.
Criticize is now established in common American usage.  Glamour is a notable ex-
ception to the American practice of dropping the u in such word endings.  The u,
however, is omitted in the derivative glamorous.
     The world of science is doing some streamlining, simplifying its vocabulary.  Thus
-id and -in are used instead of -ide and -ine.
     Many changes from older forms have come about.  The letter is now dropped
from many words that used to carry it, as in mo(u)ld, ga(u)ge, sta(u)nch.
     Another group of words in which trouble is experienced by doubtful spellers is
made up of those in which some use a c and some an s.  Offense and defense are now
a quite general favor.  Some of us write practice for either noun or verb; others

Spelling
_______________________________________________________________________
write practise for all uses of the word, and some there are who still stick to the old
way of writing practice for the noun and practise for the verb.
     A similar division of custom is observable in plow, plough.


Spelling of Plurals

     Most English noun plurals are formed by adding -s to the singular: book, books;
indication, indications; track, tracks.  But there are many variations from this simple
rule:
     1--Some nouns ending in opreceded by a consonant, add -es for the plural:
cargoes, echoes, embargoes, mottoes, potatoes.
     2--Nouns ending in opreceded by another vowel, form the plural by adding -s:
cameos, folios.
     3--Nouns ending in a consonant not followed by silent e and having a sound to 
which simple -s is not easily affixed form the plural by adding -es.  These consonants
are especially j, s, x,s z, ch, sh.  Examples: churches, gases, losses, foxes.
     4--Words ending in a consonantal sound followed by silent e form their plurals
by adding -s: ages, fences, poses, mazes.
     5--Nouns that end in y, following a consonant, form the plural by changing y
to i and adding -es: army, armies; lady, ladies; mercy, mercies; sky, skies.  This rule
applies also to nouns ending in -quy, the having consonant value equivalent to w:
colloquy, colloquies.
     6--Nouns ending in following a vowel form the plural by adding -s: day, days;
key, keys.


Spelling of Irregular Plurals

    Some groups of irregular plurals are worthy of separate attention.  With but a
little study they can be mastered and tucked away in a corner of the mind, ready
for use when needed.  Lists jotted down in a pocket notebook would be helpful and
would pay a high rate of interest on time and effort invested.
     1--Nouns in which final f, fe, or ff changes to -ves: beef, beeves; elf, elves; knife,
knives; life, lives; self, selves.  Some nouns have alternative plural forms in different
senses, as staff, staffs or staves.  Usage varies in such words as hoof and roof, but
hoofs and roofs are more in favor than hooves and rooves.
     2--Some nouns form plurals by changing the central vowel sound, without adding
-s: foot, feet; man, men; mouse, mice; tooth, teeth; woman, women.  Here the student
can experience little difficulty; the one misleading factor is the danger of false anal-
ogy. The plural of moose is not meese.  The plural of talisman is not talismen.  The
list in the notebook should show the irregular forms, the exceptions.
     3--Nouns taken over from foreign languages offer a problem: Is it better to use
the plural of the original language, or swing over boldly into an English plural?
It is not possible to rule arbitrarily on entire groups; each word has to be deter-
mined individually and independently.  The criterion is the extent to which the word
has entered into the common vocabulary.  The man of science thinks and says
formulae; the ordinary writer, accepting the word as ordinary English, makes the
plural formulas.   Those who know some Greek are apt to write automata; but autom-
atons is a convenient and perfectly satisfactory form for the multitudes who do
not know Greek.  This dictionary favors English plurals for such words AS FAR AS
POSSIBLE, as: indexes rather than indices, matrixes rather than matrices.  An example
of a completely Anglicized foreign word is bandit.  We pluralize it as bandits; the
Italian plural, banditti, is called for only in rare and special instances.  No fixed rule
can be made for these foreign nouns; the dictionary user will find it well worth while
to give them a little close study.

Words Commonly Misspelled
____________________________________________________________________

Good Spelling Is an Asset

     The difficulties of English spelling are great enough to provide a strong alibi for
persons who are not willing to work to master them.  Accuracy in spelling is worth
working for.  Poor spelling is a liability, good spelling is an asset.  Nothing good is
likely to be gained without effort.
     The first service rendered by the dictionary is that of recording spellings.  They
are shown in the entries, the first thing seen by the consultant.  And they are always
in display type; prominent, easy to find.  In the matter of reference frequency, spell-
ing no doubt far surpasses pronunciation and even definition.
    To the user of this dictionary we comment the practice of habitual notice of spell-
ings.  Instead of merely using the book to check an occasional puzzling spelling, be
spelling-conscious; notice and carefully record in the mind two or three spellings each
time the book is used.  Form the habit of SYSTEMATIZING  the information thus ac-
quired.  Make your dictionary give you full service.  This is the way to master the
art of spelling.



WEBSTER'S
New  AMERICAN
DICTIONARY

COMPLETELY NEW AND UP TO DATE.  PLANNED AND
WRITTEN BY MODERN EDUCATORS AND LEXICOGRAPHERS
ESPECIALLY TO SERVE THE ESSENTIAL REQUIREMENTS
OF SCHOOL, COLLEGE, AND SELF-EDUCATION AT HOME



Managing Editor
LEWIS M. ADAMS

Editor-in-chief
EDWARD N. TEALL, A.M.

C. RALPH TAYLOR, A.M.,
Author of Self-Education Department and Associate Editor;
Editor "The Home University Encyclopedia," "New American Encyclopedia,"
author of "Vital English"


Simplified Self-Education Treatises on:

GRAMMAR PUNCTUATION VOCABULARY TESTS
WRITING PRONUNCIATION WORDS MISPRONOUNCED
SPEAKING CAPITALIZATION  DANGER FLAGS

Illustrated -- Self-Pronouncing -- Synonyms -- Antonyms


This Dictionary is not published by the original pub-
lishers of Webster's Dictionary, or by their successors

1959
B O O K S,   I N C .
NEW  YORK

1959
B O O K S,   I N C .
NEW  YORK

Wednesday, December 30, 2015

Know Pictures Of Year To Date And The Over Taxing Men Toll Problems Of . . . . . .A Feat^Tus??

6:43 AM  ~  December 5th, 2015



X Spelling by Rules That Remain Vivid

    SPELLING IS THE ART of putting letters together to make words.  Words as spoken
are composed of sounds.  In writing and printing we represent those sounds by letters.
A person who does not know how to read, write, and spell is called an unlettered
person.  One who puts letters together to make words by guesswork is said to be
spelling phonetically; that is, by sound alone.
     But there are other elements reflected in the conventional system of spelling.
These are etymological, historical.  Our English words come from many sources,
and their origin and development are frequently reflected in the modern orthography
or system of spelling.  Its is largely due to these elements that spelling is difficult and
causes so much confusion among those who will not study the art.
     Consider the word rain.  The actual sound of it would be correctly represented
by the letters r, long a, n: ran.  But here our guess-speller is in trouble.  We have no

Spelling
____________________________________________________________________
special character (in ordinary text) for long a.  The letter a is used to represent sev-
eral quite different sounds, as in fat, fate, far, fare, sofa.  The three letters r, a, and n,
formed as a word, gives us ran, past tense of the verb run and pronounced with
short sound of a.
     As a next step, our speller may just happen to know that -ane is pronounced
with the long sound of the vowel; therefore, he might write rain as rane.
     The amazing fact about unlettered people is that they frequently do differentiate,
but almost always in reverse.  Thus our rule-ignorant speller would be quite likely
to write: "The rane fell on the window pain."
     What he would do with rein and reign is impossible to foretell.

Scientific Phonetics

     The passion for spelling reform is of long standing and uncomfortably wide dis-
tribution.  President Theodore Roosevelt gave some encouragement to its evangelists.
One of our great dictionaries recognized the reformed system boldly but not with
the hoped-for results in popular adoption of the so-labeled "simplified" style.
     The simple truth about extreme "simplified" spelling is that it is actually not as
simple as the conventional form.
     The editor has before him a pamphlet devoted to propagation of "a refrmeishn
v dh Ixglish laexgwidzh az wel az a nuli djvaizd speling"  (a reformation of the
English language as well as a newly devised spelling).  Imagine trying to teach such
a system to boys and girls in "the grades"!  This reformer spells  "typewriter"
"taipraitr."  "Resides" becomes "rjzaidz."  "Exposure," in this system, is "ikspozhr."
And the inventor says:  "In faekt, it kaen bj lrnt bai eni wan in a faivminit stadi."
     Such wildly theoretic reform has never gained favor with the multitudes; it is
impossible to believe it ever can.  But many  "reforms" have worked themselves
out in the course of time and by natural processes.  Such processes must ever super-
sede in effective influence all private reform enterprise and even (could it be gained)
legislative decree.  An example of this "natural" reform may be sen in the dropping
of the k from the early English form musick.
     Such changes as program for programme, catalog for catalogue, come about naturally
and not through propaganda of theorists.  The American tendency, in spelling as in
compounding, is for true simplicity.  Its operation is accelerated, in our times, by
such influences as the saving of space in headlines, the constant pressure for con-
densation and speed, the desire for STREAMLINING.
     Many specious arguments have been advanced in favor of this miscalled simplifi-
cation.  The fundamental plea, that it SIMPLIFIES, is false.  It does not diminish the
difficulties; it increases them.  It would not effect a material saving of space in
printing; actual typographical demonstration is easy.  The "simplified" spellings
would cut linage very slightly, if at all; they would simply result in more open
spacing of lines.
     Conventionalized spelling is an inescapable necessity.  It makes for the common
good.  It assures the reader's understanding of the writer's work.  It is not a matter
of taste and judgement, like choice of necktie; it is a matter of practical effectiveness,
like the two-and-twoness of four.  True and desirable reform will come about through
natural operations, the prevalence of a common will over the idiosyncrasies of restless
seekers after change for change's sake.
     Sir Thomas Smith of Queen Elizabeth's cabinet was an early advocate of other
than go-as-you-please spelling.  An example of the difficulties encountered is in the
doubling of final consonants before terminations.  Even today there are some per-

Spelling
____________________________________________________________________
fectly respectable Americans who deplore the modern American practice of dropping
the second p in kidnaper.  To them the shortened form seems really to "say," to sug-
gest to the reader's mind, a long sound of a: kidnāping.  A kidnaper, they say, would
be one who napes; one who naps is a napper.  And this is based upon good old-
established usage.  For one who taps is a tapper; one who naps is a napper.
     Here we run into the matter of accent.  Shall we write benefitted or benefited?
Fidgetty, or fidgety?  Everybody writes fitted, without a misgiving; the stem is ac-
cented.  Fidgety is better than fidgetty, because the final syllable is not accented.
But modern usage--due largely to newspaper practice, where mechanical considera-
tions prevail and the cutting of space is a major desideratum--is decisively influ-
ential, and the people are writing kidnaper, kidnaping.
     Meanwhile, we have certain commonly accepted standards, and our purpose is to
present those rulings of common usage in the simplest and most helpful manner.
That is one of prime functions of a dictionary.



WEBSTER'S
New   AMERICAN
DICTIONARY

COMPLETELY NEW AND UP TO DATE.  PLANNED AND
WRITTEN BY MODERN EDUCATORS AND LEXICOGRAPHERS
ESPECIALLY TO SERVE THE ESSENTIAL REQUIREMENTS
OF SCHOOL, COLLEGE, AND SELF-EDUCATION AT HOME



Managing Editor
LEWIS M. ADAMS

Editor-in-chief
EDWARD N. TEALL, A.M.

C. RALPH TAYLOR, A.M.,
Author of Self-Education Department and Associate Editor;
Editor "The Home University Encyclopedia," "New American Encyclopedia,"
author of "Vital English"


Simplified Self-Education Treatises on:

GRAMMAR PUNCTUATION VOCABULARY TESTS
WRITING PRONUNCIATION WORDS MISPRONOUNCED
SPEAKING CAPITALIZATION  DANGER FLAGS

Illustrated -- Self-Pronouncing -- Synonyms -- Antonyms


This Dictionary is not published by the original pub-
lishers of Webster's Dictionary, or by their successors

1959
B O O K S,   I N C .
NEW  YORK

What Is Vet Wrap Should The Standard Band^Age Know What Cavalletti's Can Be?? A Jump Pole Or To See The Spot Or Know That Trainers Clinic Clock??



Saddle Up this Nation on the treble Cleft of the Musical on the classic of dressage on that first day,
with the leg on the length be of the girth??,
well back in the day that Girth had Made to the Clever,
hinge this stable touch understanding a hand gallop to the jump of the Hedge stump,
on the Trunk of the said is the burst of this ride!!

Cinch chew say to that Tow back range of Coffee on the Stood straight Spoon??,
butter on the What??,
cream in the pudding as the Milk is on the sip of tea,
saucer for the fill on that is the leaves,
yes is that for any in the tree understand the pour of the whistle of the steaming of Kettle large to sound.

Bring this to bridle ask the back whats a pound,
the coin or the flip on the Tale of head in the air of the Say??,
change that to the stove this is nigh the ringer in the largest of the call,
it is the Numbers of the 10 on the 5 of the 2:9 Carriage.

Is the reason for sud toll the soap of that glass eyed look of the under stair,
is that the toy let on the driveway CLEAR!! as that is the bellowing HERE,
raise Trade bell to that is the Walk in the Park on the Roads of Tracks in Condition for the Condition the Condition is Inn,
make Wise to that is the Whisper on the roof off a venture to the Strip in that this is the Stip.!!,
far from Cry close to sheer,
dress told the hat that the step is on the dream of 815 long distance left.

Shore sands dial to the Dough Tee for this is the perk on that is the known of the Rung!!


What's SAT??

The Written Tend on December 29th, 2015 at 5:21 PM



So as the Haul a days have just come to that realization that the year is just a pause as any ankle steer,
the cows and that be stipulation on every given stand to handle the single cart of harness,
the bridle on the bit piece to walk on with the imagination of the sake song on the ditched,
people some what believe that the calendar charges change to the steep,
how ever the stupor of real to blink in that strange lyre on the harps of treads veal.

Ewe are still sheep the Flocking is still fleece Sweaters are still Air in,
the wool is still on the threads of silk,
crowds are still going to work,
society is still responsible for each ink coal of the embers of the burning land,
just in the trailer of the hitch at the ball of the scale on sheet style and skip!!

These park chew darts to Aim,
the guitar to play a short sprite on the X Fact or once the Shale will still chalk let,
the voice still in the vocal chords of the text stem,
words pare,
the fresh stale stair is still the case of library that be rum`d ice class to shoulder skates as chest turn`d state.

Those cheese still ripens on the Wheel of baled,
the Wire on the Internet still Volumes the listing of the letters with that clause,
sentence is still life on the strum,
music is still banister to the scrolling of strollers that dock at the putters deal,
dirt tee is still the Ilk on the Sock of the liquid Ivory of the Keys to plates of Tiers,
the location is still the corner to the block of the pyramid lives that ran to the streamers with dally & diced.

Preparation of the war Fare of Political debates will Once a pawn the Cook to the stage of Pick Tux,
the labels will comma cause E! to the Upper Grip of the grid on the time of what was a blackout,
that National Media will Shore in immediate right back to the check Spin to record porridge,
the nest of egg scrambles of brains and lanes will perk to the cough in of monster by sod,
the clove will spice the pump ken to widdle the american arson to burning bare ole again,
these pastures of what did have a slip to play the ballet and serve the tea party leaves will revive to the shine.

Is it nice to Neet,
service with an August Nights sort of File to compass the Same in exact for the limit less diet of shaped,
that mull over the sigh duh to know that snow is of the spelling of flakes in the World of just like,
that perfect festival of gathering pleasure to were shipping the coin on the heads of the tale lore's smiled.
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

5:48 AM  ~  12/4/2015

Buy the purchase of A thimble in the Inch the Thread of Silks in the Web Burrs rise,
a platter of lace to that buckle of Shoe which Craft venue is the batter Up??,
is the welp of the screen as those chain the ankle,
be of the String no Theory to land!!

Brain in that Fast growth to the Knee where is the Value of the giants on Steel,
now the Knights have cast Bourne to make off the Move 'V' splendor on Did??,
yappy the bellow on the Chimney is splash??,
the Ponds on the lathe make In dressed for Stuff in??,
all while the World gallops the Pole,
flag these to Wares in the Drugstores of Fees in dust Deeds in the Trades!!

Give to the Take clip on the Theater And in the Between pause for the Spits,
oil to the Hill on the slides of the Films hour is the Min. It to write Scribes from the grave!!

Round to the glass break in The Yarn second Price to Saline as the Tiers angle Dice,
a Rooster on Hen roof the Egg laying Stray,
with a good Chair Understanding as the Show In bee sea!!

Wow winced the Form^Ole to screetch say its Awl,
with a bit on the langauage And an An Sir to brae,
add in the Substitution to IM^Possible swing,
Mission that Off to the Once in a Strain.

Pt. Pier^'e'^Odd that blankets to Rockets read Stare,
horses on Daisy duke of the Pear,
application with Timing to bounce the big Steer,
but as any good Coffee the saddle Knows range,
for that is not a steering its a knowing of Oysters,
rock Key Mountain to the fry of Pi lawns and Veer.

What Is An Introduction To Trainers Should I Say Bow??



The Bounce 'The Fly' the Grid Work on the Ride with an Arena & Cross Country; an Event to know,
as the course is of standard it is the Dressage of the letter to Horsemanship book`d,
chapter by text the Verses of tack Saddles bits Bridles shore with Reins to rubber leather Weave,
west buy North to understand the Viking,
read Hare the skip to walk seat off the World!!

Lathe to the Skull stalls on the barn it is the Well groomed Stable that delivers the Isle,
Reeses is a Candy the counter of Chalk let us gain to the Bubble of read deed,
streets of San Francisco the music on in vest a gate marking that creature feature for shows,
Poster boys Super steeps kettles known did NBC for the brook Creeks bell leaved,
rising trot to collection on the feeds remember the oats as Bud did the strong!!

Hot Chocolate memory the steady on ride,
walking to driving those that chose to Hem lives with lawn,
aim did the bough len did the blink to get that blink its a comprehend of the gong,
boom went the Convent to marble Floors from the Hall,
there on the cadence that chap^pull for Tong!!

Dressed in the call or that reminded a clothes,
as to see would believe that lives are in gauge,
locke`s on constitution to describe founder of swap,
same on the coin is the Tale of the shake,
blunt is a joint that spelled cruise to the map,
other on speaking Talking just Zest!!

Tam a Rack is spring to the attach of that scene,
say crid spark to IM burr it slouch while the cobblestone did the out dure of Tier,
scones spoke of role as the Cocktail spin yet on the air plane the cent tense did Nair,
stubble to jar the seal of steam Canning is still on the beep beep off that pean.

Bon is a define to understand land Fire is Flame that Aristotle rang stout with simply Plato on Tau,
dust to the shelves of the shoulders on carriage,
fill loss sew fee ran to the catch Twenty five dancing the brain to Mind that built too.

Hart in the work is hour of Pick remember Remember the E! 'V' go tip,
scrabble the Opera at fan Tum the grasp,
rule of the Wag is the Tale of the 'V' Nus,
its in the stars of Compass direct shins go Tight in,
computers technology is logic with Mail!!

Tuesday, December 29, 2015



I really enjoy the radio on this Can of the discussion conversation on the Tims,
great is the flavor to spice on the Or register of the receipt to Tack the bit piece to Work,
in that is the present of accounted door as the light is of this Man's particular dedication to warm,
the heat off the Words to be of the trace that responsibility to foundation is of structure to Structure sound!!

Of the put to thought on the amazing audience 'Years' the gather has collection first grains,
this puts to the language of not not round a bout nor does the fountain not not know of the ink!!

Width this with the world of current charge of the snooze this music is the Sheet Notes to Suit,
per ankle to call the put to those plates consider the time touching grace for the gates,
the excitement on line envelopes strange weird but the Thyme is like Salt on the brine of Mans pour.

So as the Crow does fly,
as the question is begged for that is said for thee appropriate Tug,
the drink is a taste from the To deep prose on the toe,
counting the Theme is not desired for the option is to bring the News with a Sky!!,
I shall provide Information to the In Form Nation of my ear to the grind,
no stone needed as the tune is the ability to tune the radio to the actual of Talk 910 KKSF AM for Host named Noun,
 now for Alan Colmes!!

Some of the commercials are a bit taxing,
although the Harbor is a Pier on the Dutch of what is necessary for the Goods of Production,
as price Cost to staple it is the butter of the milk on cream for a cup of coffee with practical Shell,
as this makes the challenge to know of the whisper I love the determination of the at steel of cope,
learning that all must endure to listen.

What floors me each a compass on the bearings of his ear is the ability to Hello on the long listeners,
its an appeal to the realm of such steady on fodder that brings delivery with lanes for the Talkers to speech,
language is brought with both teach and be taught with options for expression that take Task to the station.

This is a Shore!!

KKSF
NewsTalk 910AM masthead logo.png
City of licenseOakland, California
Broadcast areaSan Francisco Bay Area
BrandingTalk 910
SloganSan Francisco's Talk Station
Frequency910 kHz (also on HD Radio)
First air date1922 (as KLX)
FormatNews/Hot Talk
Power20,000 watts (Day)
5,000 watts (Night)
ClassB
Facility ID59966
Transmitter coordinates37°53′45″N 122°19′25″WCoordinates37°53′45″N 122°19′25″W
Callsign meaningK K "San Francisco"
Former callsignsKLX (1922-1959)
KEWB (1959-1966)
KNEW (1966-2012)
AffiliationsFox News Radio
Premiere Radio Networks
OwneriHeartMedia, Inc.
(AMFM Broadcasting Licenses, LLC)
Sister stationsKIOIKISQKMELKNEW,KOSFKYLD
WebcastListen Live
Websitetalk910.com



Whats The Backstretch Should The Homestretch Not Have Been On The Tell A Phone?? A Movie, Theatre Piece Or Real Lives That Believe That It Really Just Comes Down To The Wire??




It is so wonderful to know that this year has hugged with such grace of the lathe,
shingles to rooftops on the music of sound,
that encouragement shore to the sands on the snore,
waves tasting beach to know that the scene is as beautiful as a piece of the washing Ma sheen.

Clear to the weather the magnitude signed,
with ever in trust the spot by design,
win to the Home of My Grandparents rare,
dining room saying that memories formed.

So excited to believe that Oak Tree did find growth with the drive to the sail of man stand,
the edge of such storms in the world of such torn,
the love is just beaming to know of the Fore!!

Simply the avenue on the looking glass birch,
those smooth introductions to locations on subbed,
yet in that rather of these days on bend thunder,
light is the language to envelope tux hugged.

Long on the lane is the Beulah Drive for the grain,
now on the hour it is the evening of lights sigh,
overlook to that downtown remember the face,
music is spacing to play with the grace.

Much has come down to the barn of a stable,
nigh worry from worry at worry in drug by the anchors of loud to much for the tongue,
with complete verse to be happy My Mother is clear,
that I have a love that is deeply in signed.

Glad that the perfect of My Mother is cheer,
for that was a troublesome worry to worry again,
now that the free verse is walking for grin,
may the friends that I once embraced become the bet friends.

Gamble with letters of prose on the Poe leased to bring reason with eh,
hours of day writes to spell touch the hand grand,
My Mother has berth to the Harbor of planned,
it is a piece to this year with the beauty of loved.

Where Does The Pony Express Saddle To English Again??



Pigeons Cause to care Reed Fluster of the Message on the Wings of the Bird,
sea the spelling divide on the sow,
at the cost of the Seeds pin`d Of the Fester of the Cyst on the Boiling of the Plaster at Say Ur,
the License of the Chimney the Bill Owe of the News,
Media on denial those Channels on the National bring Casting of Horror with spice Taste on spore,
make that sae urge to truss of Skull it Develops to the Film of coloring on the Blanks??.
this is the Pasteur of silk with the Clothes of skin.

Sheds that have method to operation of the dialing of Soups to brain the batters Shell??,
oil & Soap rinsed with the Wording that has bring??,
shopping to death filled with commercial Add vent Ties`d??,
thee At Fester hath delivery!!

Head of sayer to raft or the Measured??,
digs on the Swells of the ditch to the Press??,
type light I.D. to Louse??,
the comb of Shampoo??,
deep Cent??,
piles of sutter street??,
galley of the Kit^chin??,
square block to Sphinx on the pier Amid the cobble??,
stretch of the lamp as the shade is the tread??,
did the History of the shower discuss conversations drawn on the straw of the Shakes??

Gee tack Haw on the Tax^eh^Shin of the Arm Raced to track the Computation of calculations baste??,
paste Ding arch of Feat to prints sand??,
grain of sail??,
sleeve of Suit??,
Shepherds of the Pill^Grimm??

Swallow the Whistle as the Flout tsk Rosins the Violin a Dove the roof layer??,
mud Cakes pad Dee whack??,
pass Tour of the bus Vans a racket from Tennis to Rack^It ball meant to dial the Numbers of 10:22??

What sheep drive Ewe flocking glee Wind doughs that have Woven Sweaters fore Trued??,
directions to Stack`d Sigh Ole to per Act score??,
less the lease to body sided shorn is the Clipper of Yak with Camel back Sleep??,
closed Lyre sing Drum sticks and Can to Microphone rum Runners on the sew brie??,
oh^shin the skirt the Hemming way guard each stitch to chorus the Singer at strand,
why's the whirl waisting Mon day??.

Fee Fie Fiddle lee Aye 'O' the letter of the Numb burr that Human Tech Knoll logic still long,
yeast has drop risen to speak of the spree`d,
rum on the past tell to schedule to Dates on the dried prunes of Trees on the read woulds of political state,
words Fall in questions??,
Mark 10!!


Monday, December 28, 2015

What Gait Is a Can Tur??



There was or is an Organ Builder that lives or quite possibly still is in reside at 10th & Balboa,
the Home of his selection gave great Prize to a sound of language that brought my ears to attention,
the grasp of the said sew flowed that languages still framed my sheet to lyricist this sheet of Note to Stall,
as barn of Goods to stable of Wrest the Music came with no echo of Understanding his Posture,
the prose sang to History on the structure of simply,
I'll never forget!!

The soap box shall know the candor of this per flextion of this Country's pleasure of Trots,
near the base of Fiscal sleigh is the Harness of The harp of string wrung Cat gut to guitar Tune,
place to Play ballet shuffles on touching of strength to darn kneeing of Pewter chalice At supper,
meal brought Face to not sneak the read rather at time lead the answer shall perk!!

Coffee on such bench of complete reality delivered no porch to technique,
from the trenches to that floor ride the marrow was Thick to Diner,
tiles bring comprehension to this day of sudtle wreath to Ivy-Up the Oak on stride,
deck of Elephant to Rooms at slid,
the glass Screen with Memories sill.

Thorough the horse has been to my saddle of shoulder,
the grace of the bridle to shore the Beach is a loan,
inward the Waves to gust Ocean on speak,
round to the fount of eloquence flute on delve Reason bell,
teak is the spring nor root From,
over bare Ole best describes his Rum.

Sew burr raise to Invite these bearings frost length to the Arm strong of Song`d,
that letter of let Us real eyes to determined by My Mother and the discernment of trace,
in feather by Ink the puncture of sled Tattoo's could rarely be as Numbered as true`d in Case library,
in evident spoke the ankle on clock,
hands to saucer the Teacup of tonk!! 

Are Card etchings Cave with trail to Spur??,
is the leg on the thigh of Chick lets Pour turkey??,
does the trophy be gather with dust on Shelf skate??,
do Ice glaciers Speak as the Thunder or sleet??,
should the shower of syn say sensitive be dawn Kneeing a groom,
than the years on those factors road hard core doors to plates!!

In the addition to Time on Ages of sweep,
the rake on the shovel the ditch to the Creek,
river be Nile and Red Sea talk that pause,
today the Watch brought Template to bread.

Seeing is the breadth of sure to the keel,
well Shingle with cob blur yet the rather is Sped,
to kilometer measure the Inch to the mile,
rule of character brought the thumb with a construction from strong,
his last name is a difficult spelling but the boot to the cleat was also a Tug,
the wisdom on this that and the crutch is the Wealth of the bulb on the tent of the Steep.

There in focus after finally at compass,
the book of the scene so ever in tum,
a belly gone collywobble just to know of the storm is delivery of envelope to that work on the torn.


How Does Waon Stay Ire MUN Should The Pastern Joint Be Both Lair Inks And Fay Links??



I love the long memory to the table of that chair in the air of breast on a seam state Nouns name Herman,
that time in the midst of fathom on the Plate of license in I the wonder of the travel,
for on the Tradition of many A Ship the we're of both body and Feat,
treasure these planes as the truth will Engine this in Hard Tack today!!

Dig this heel on the Wall of this Blog for these are Nigh from rather the Evident dear To,
rancid are the hours of spin in with division of no cadence to the eyes of blink Reality,
gather I a collect shin to template my discipline to the Horse as the stead,
an grrrrrrrrr runs my staple to the Pleat of such thread that fiber will Silken worms Tale in sail ole`d,
drink fine tent touch the vast skull a Bout the shoulder is the carriage of this shoulders Elbow!!

Heave the weight of lackadaisical blinders that must crease the bridle on lives that have numb`d distal,
the Fin of gauge to the depth of the Oceans (a) larm,
looming are the waters of Salt on the brine of Base to that tack Tile of erased easily seat!!,
what say chew on the phat of darby to saddle-Up this bravado of Opera pear??,
is thrice the Apple ayes??,
that aisle of round the pen sprout to fountain of grasp on the harness of dell Delight??,
ore is the define and L! a Men toll is the Price.

Put placard to that,
the Number on set at 9: dime on the Quarter divided by the Five on the Rome!!,
I plaster Pear S! to putt the golf as the short clip of close stubbs Picture the Tome!!,
its the basis of Brass in the Trumpets of loan,
for I it is the Excite Meant to Temper the Trail of edge darn kneeing the ride!!,
reins on the arena of Dressage to engage the Haunch as the turns are the Forehand once a halt!!,
nigh minute to the chorus of this Country on the Futures of streets and Venue a stage to stagger the comb,
calm be for the storm on the Watch of Wind trust the sound.

Does Lumber Log Paper With Drivers Now Known As Computers With Type??

Trireme

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about ancient warships. For the venture capital firm, see Trireme Partners.

Fleet of triremes made up of photographs of the modern full-sized replica Olympias.
trireme (derived from Latin: triremis[1] "with three banks of oars;" Ancient Greekτριήρης triērēs,[2] literally "three-rower") was an ancient vessel and a type of galley that was used by the ancient maritime civilizations of the Mediterranean, especially the Phoeniciansancient Greeks and Romans.[3][4]
The trireme derives its name from its three rows of oars, manned with one man per oar. The early trireme was a development of thepenteconter, an ancient warship with a single row of 30 oars on each side (i.e., a double-banked boat), and of the bireme (Greekδιήρης,diērēs), a warship with two banks of oars, probably of Phoenician origin,[5] The word dieres does not appear until the Roman period. "It must be assumed the term pentekontor covered the two-level type".[6] As a ship it was fast and agile, and it was the dominant warship in the Mediterranean during the 7th to 4th centuries BC, after which it was largely superseded by the larger quadriremes and quinqueremes. Triremes played a vital role in the Persian Wars, the creation of the Athenian maritime empire, and its downfall in the Peloponnesian War.
The term is sometimes also used to refer to medieval and early modern galleys with three files of oarsmen per side as triremes.[7]

History[edit]

source[edit]


Phoenician warship[8] with two rows of oars, relief from Nineveh, ca. 700 BC
Depictions of two-banked ships (biremes), with or without the parexeiresia (the outriggers, see below), are common in 8th century BC and later vases and pottery fragments, and it is at the end of that century that the first references to three-banked ships are found. Fragments from an 8th-century relief at the Assyrian capital of Nineveh depicting the fleets of Tyre and Sidon show ships with rams, and fitted with oars pivoted at two levels. They have been interpreted as two-decked warships, and also[clarification needed] as triremes.[9]
Modern scholarship is divided on the provenance of the trireme, Greece or Phoenicia, and the exact time it developed into the foremost ancient fighting ship.[10] Clement of Alexandria in the 2nd century, drawing on earlier works, explicitly attributes the invention of the trireme (trikrotos naus, "three-banked ship") to the Sidonians.[11] According to Thucydides, the trireme was introduced to Greece by theCorinthians in the late 8th century BC, and the Corinthian Ameinocles built four such ships for the Samians.[12] This was interpreted by later writers, Pliny and Diodorus, to mean that triremes were invented in Corinth,[13] the possibility remains that the earliest three-banked warships originated in Phoenicia.

Early use and development[edit]


The Lenormant Relief, from theAthenian Acropolis, depicting the rowers of an aphract Athenian trireme, ca. 410 BC. Found in 1852, it is one of the main pictorial testaments to the layout of the trireme.

A Greek trireme.
Herodotus mentions that the Egyptian pharaoh Necho II (610–595 BC) built triremes on the Nile, for service in the Mediterranean, and in the Red Sea, but this reference is disputed by modern historians, and attributed to a confusion, since "triērēs" was by the 5th century used in the generic sense of "warship", regardless its type.[14] The first definite reference to the use of triremes in naval combat dates to ca. 525 BC, when, according to Herodotus, the tyrant Polycrates of Samos was able to contribute 40 triremes to a Persian invasion of Egypt(Battle of Pelusium).[15] Thucydides meanwhile clearly states that in the time of the Persian Wars, the majority of the Greek navies consisted of (probably two-tiered) penteconters and ploia makrá ("long ships").[16]
In any case, by the early 5th century, the trireme was becoming the dominant warship type of the eastern Mediterranean, with minor differences between the "Greek" and "Phoenician" types, as literary references and depictions of the ships on coins make clear. The first large-scale naval battle where triremes participated was the Battle of Lade during the Ionian Revolt, where the combined fleets of the Greek Ionian cities were defeated by the Persian fleet, composed of squadrons from their Phoenician, CarianCypriot and Egyptian subjects.

The Persian Wars[edit]

Athens was at that time embroiled in a conflict with the neighbouring island of Aegina, which possessed a formidable navy. In order to counter this, and possibly with an eye already at the mounting Persian preparations, in 483/2 BC the Athenian statesman Themistoclesused his political skills and influence to persuade the Athenian assembly to start the construction of 200 triremes, using the income of the newly discovered silver mines at Laurion. The first clash with the Persian navy was at the Battle of Artemisium, where both sides suffered great casualties. However, the decisive naval clash occurred at Salamis, where Xerxes' invasion fleet was decisively defeated.
After Salamis and another Greek victory over the Persian fleet at Mycale, the Ionian cities were freed, and the Delian League was formed under the aegis of Athens. Gradually, the predominance of Athens turned the League effectively into an Athenian Empire. The source and foundation of Athens' power was her strong fleet, composed of over 200 triremes. It not only secured control of the Aegean Sea and the loyalty of her allies, but also safeguarded the trade routes and the grain shipments from the Black Sea, which fed the city's burgeoning population. In addition, as it provided permanent employment for the city's poorer citizens, the fleet played an important role in maintaining and promoting the radical Athenian form of democracy. Athenian maritime power is the first example of thalassocracy in world history. Aside from Athens, other major naval powers of the era included SyracuseCorfu and Corinth.
In the subsequent Peloponnesian War, naval battles fought by triremes were crucial in the power balance between Athens and Sparta. Despite numerous land engagements, Athens was finally defeated through the destruction of her fleet during the Sicilian Expedition, and finally, at the Battle of Aegospotami, at the hands of Sparta and her allies.

Design[edit]


Model of a Greek trireme

Olympias, a reconstruction of an ancient Athenian trireme.
Based on all archeological evidence, the design of trireme surely pushed the technological limits of the ancient world. After gathering the proper timbers and materials it was time to consider the fundamentals of the trireme design. These fundamentals included accommodations, propulsion, weight and waterline, center of gravity and stability, strength, and feasibility. All of these variables are dependent on one another; however a certain area may be more important than another depending on the purpose of the ship.[3]
The arrangement and number of oarsmen is the first deciding factor in the size of the ship. For a ship to travel at high speeds would require a high oar-gearing, which is the ratio between the outboard length of an oar and the inboard length; it is this arrangement of the oars which is unique and highly effective for the trireme. The ports would house the oarsmen with a minimal waste of space. There would be three files of oarsmen on each side tightly but workably packed by placing each man outboard of, and in height overlapping, the one below, provided that thalamian tholes were set inboard and their ports enlarged to allow oar movement. Thalamian is the English term for the Greek word, thalamios, which was the name of the oarsmen in the lowest file of the triereis; zygian is the English term for the Greek word, zygios, which were the oarsmen in the middle file of the triereis, and thranite is the English term for the Greek word, thranites, which were the oarsmen in the uppermost file of the triereis. Tholes were pins that acted as fulcrums to the oars that allowed them to move. The center of gravity of the ship is low because of the overlapping formation of the files that allow the ports to remain closer to the ships walls. A lower center of gravity would provide adequate stability.[3]
The trireme was constructed to maximize all traits of the ship to the point where if any changes were made the design would be compromised. Speed was maximized to the point where any less weight would have resulted in considerable losses to the ship's integrity. The center of gravity was placed at the lowest possible position where the Thalamian tholes were just above the waterline which retained the ship's resistance to waves and the possible rollover. If the center of gravity were placed any higher, the additional beams needed to restore stability would have resulted in the exclusion of the Thalamian tholes due to the reduced hull space. The purpose of the area just below the center of gravity and the waterline known as the hypozomata was to allow bending of the hull when faced with up to 90 kN of force. The calculations of forces that could have been absorbed by the ship are arguable because there is not enough evidence to confirm the exact process of jointing used in ancient times. In a modern reconstruction of the ship, a polysulphide sealant was used to compare to the caulking that evidence suggests was used; however this is also argued because there is simply not enough evidence to authentically reproduce the triereis seams.[4]
Triremes required a great deal of upkeep in order to stay afloat, as references to the replacement of ropes, sails, rudders, oars and masts in the middle of campaigns suggest.[17][18] They also would become waterlogged if left in the sea for too long. In order to prevent this from happening, ships would have to be pulled from the water during the night. The use of lightwoods meant that the ship could be carried ashore by as few as 140 men.[19] Beaching the ships at night however, would leave the troops vulnerable to surprise attacks. While well-maintained triremes would last up to 25 years, during the Peloponnesian War, Athens had to build nearly 20 triremes a year to maintain their fleet of 300.[17]
The Athenian trireme had two great cables of about 47 mm in diameter and twice the ship's length called hypozomata (undergirding), and carried two spares. They were possibly rigged fore and aft from end to end along the middle line of the hull just under the main beams and tensioned to 13.5 tonnes force. The hypozomata were considered important and secret: their export from Athens was a capital offence.[20] This cable would act as a stretched tendon straight down the middle of the hull, and would have prevented hogging. Additionally, hull plank butts would remain in compression in all but the most severe sea conditions, reducing working of joints and consequent leakage.[21] The hypozomatawould also have significantly braced the structure of the trireme against the stresses of ramming, giving it an important advantage in combat.[22]

Dimensions[edit]

Excavations of the ship sheds (neōsoikoi) at the harbour of Zea in Piraeus, which was the main war harbour of ancient Athens, were first carried out by Dragatsis and Wilhelm Dörpfeld in the 1880s.[23] These have provided us with a general outline of the Athenian trireme. The sheds were ca. 40 m long and just 6 m wide. These dimensions are corroborated by the evidence of Vitruvius, whereby the individual space allotted to each rower was 2 cubits.[24] With the Doric cubit of 0.49 m, this results in an overall ship length of just under 37 m.[25] The height of the sheds' interior was established as 4.026 metres[citation needed], leading to estimates that the height of the hull above the water surface was ca. 2.15 metres. Its draught was relatively shallow, about 1 metre, which, in addition to the relatively flat keel and low weight, allowed it to be beached easily.[citation needed]

Construction[edit]


The mortise and tenon joint method of hull construction employed in ancientvessels.
Construction of the trireme differed from modern practice. The construction of a trireme was expensive and required around 6000 man-days of labor to complete.[26] The ancient Mediterranean practice was to build the outer hull first, and the ribs afterwards. To secure and strengthen the hull, cables (hypozōmata) were employed, fitted in the keel and stretched by means of windlasses. Hence the triremes were often called "girded" when in commission.[27]
The materials from which the trireme was constructed were an important aspect of its design. The three principal timbers included fir, pine, and cedar. Primarily the choice in timber depended on where the construction took place. For example, in Syria and Phoenicia, triereis were made of cedar because pine was not readily available. Pine is stronger and more resistant to decay, but it is heavy unlike fir which was used because it was lightweight. The frame and internal structure would consist of pine and fir for a compromise between durability and weight.[3]
Another very strong type of timber is oak; this was primarily used for the hulls of triereis to withstand the force of hauling ashore. Other ships would usually have their hulls made of pine because they would usually come ashore via a port or with the use of an anchor. It was necessary to ride the triereis onto the shores because there simply was no time to anchor a ship during war and gaining control of enemy shores was crucial in the advancement of an invading army. (Petersen) The joints of the ship required finding wood that was capable of absorbing water but was not completely dried out to the point where no water absorption could occur. There would be gaps between the planks of the hull when the ship was new, but once submerged the planks would absorb the water and expand thus forming a watertight hull.[3]
Problems would occur for example when shipbuilders would use green wood for the hull; when green timber is allowed to dry it loses moisture which causes cracks in the wood that could cause catastrophic damages to the ship. The sailyards and masts were preferably made from fir because fir trees were naturally tall and provided these parts in usually a single piece. Making durable rope consisted of using both papyrus and white flax; the idea to use such materials is suggested by evidence to have originated in Egypt. In addition, ropes began being made from a variety of esparto grass in the later third century BC.[3]
The use of lightwoods meant that the ship could be carried ashore by as few as 140 men,[19] but also that the hull soaked up water, which adversely affected its speed and maneuverability. But it was still faster than other warships.
Once the triremes were seaworthy, it is argued that they were highly decorated with, "eyes, nameplates, painted figureheads, and various ornaments". These decorations were used both to show the wealth of the patrician and to make the ship frightening to the enemy. The home port of each trireme was signaled by the wooden statue of a deity located above the bronze ram on the front of the ship.[28] In the case of Athens, since most of the fleet's triremes were paid for by wealthy citizens, there was a natural sense of competition among the patricians to create the "most impressive" trireme, both to intimidate the enemy and to attract the best oarsmen.[28] Of all military expenditure, triremes were the most labor- and (in terms of men and money) investment-intensive.

Propulsion and capabilities[edit]

The ship's primary propulsion came from the 180 oars (kōpai), arranged in three rows, with one man per oar. Evidence for this is provided by Thucydides, who records that theCorinthian oarsmen carried "each his oar, cushion (hypersion) and oarloop".[29] The ship also had two masts, a main (histos megas) and a small foremast (histos akateios), with square sails, while steering was provided by two steering oars at the stern (one at the port side, one to starboard).
Classical sources indicate that the trireme was capable of sustained speeds of ca. 6 knots at a relatively leisurely pace.[30] There is also a reference by Xenophon of a single day's voyage from Byzantium to Heraclea Pontica, which translates as an average speed of 7.37 knots.[31] These figures seem to be corroborated by the tests conducted with the reconstructed Olympias: a maximum speed of 8 knots and a steady speed of 4 knots could be maintained, with half the crew resting at a time.[32] Given the imperfect nature of the reconstructed ship as well as the fact that it was manned by totally untrained modern men and women, it is reasonable to suggest that ancient triremes, expertly built and navigated by trained men, would attain higher speeds.
The distance a trireme could cover in a given day depended much on the weather. On a good day, the oarsmen, rowing for 6–8 hours, could propel the ship between eighty and a hundred kilometres. There were rare instances however when experienced crews and new ships were able to cover nearly twice that distance (Thucydides mentions a trireme travelling 300 kilometres in one day).[33] The commanders of the triremes also had to stay aware of the condition of their men. They had to keep their crews comfortably paced so as not to exhaust them before battle.

Crew[edit]

The total complement (plērōma) of the ship was about 200.[34][35] These were divided into the 170 rowers (eretai), who provided the ship's motive power, the deck crew headed by the trierarch, and a marine detachment. Perhaps the most interesting aspect pertaining to the men who composed the crew of the Athenian triremes was the fact that the ships were an extension of their democratic beliefs. The rich and poor rowed alongside each other and Victor Davis Hanson argues it "Served the larger civic interest of acculturating thousands as they worked together in cramped conditions and under dire circumstances."[36]
In the Athenian fleet, during the Peloponnesian War, there are a few variations to the typical crew layout of a trireme. One variation used a drastically reduced number of oarsmen so as to use the ship as a troop transport. The thranites would row from the top benches, while the rest of the space below would be filled up with hoplites. Another variation, which the Athenians used for transporting horses (the Athenian fleet had about 10 or so of these ships),[37] had 60 oarsmen, leaving the rest of the ship open for horses.
By design the trireme was meant for day-long journeys, with no capacity to stay at sea overnight or carry the necessary provisions to sustain the men it carried. There were, however, storage facilities on board large enough to provide each crewman with the 2 gallons (7.6 L) of fresh drinking water he would need to stay hydrated each day.[38] This meant that all those aboard were dependent upon the land and peoples of where they landed each night for supplies. Sometimes this would entail traveling up to eighty kilometres in order to procure the necessary provisions. In the Peloponnesian War, the beached Athenian fleet was caught unawares on more than one occasion, while out looking for food (Battle of Syracuse and Battle of Aegospotami). The cities, which suddenly found themselves needing to provide for all these sailors were usually agreeable and did not mind the extra business, but those in charge of the fleet and/or mission had to be careful not to completely deplete the 'host' city of resources.[39]

Trierarch[edit]

The ship's captain was known as the trierarch (triērarchos). He was a wealthy Athenian citizen (usually from the class of the pentakosiomedimoi), responsible for manning, fitting out and maintaining the ship for his liturgical year at least; the ship itself belonged to Athens. The triērarchia was one of the liturgies of ancient Athens; although it afforded great prestige, it constituted a great financial burden, so that in the 4th century, it was often shared by two citizens, and after 397 BC it was assigned to special boards.

Deck crew[edit]

The deck and command crew (hypēresia) was headed by the helmsman, the kybernētēs, who was always an experienced seaman and was often the actual commander of the vessel. These experienced sailors were to be found on the upper levels of the triremes. Other officers were the bow lookout (prōreus or prōratēs), the boatswain (keleustēs), the quartermaster (pentēkontarchos), the shipwright (naupēgos), the piper (aulētēs) who gave the rowers' rhythm and two superintendents (toicharchoi), in charge of the rowers on each side of the ship. What constituted these sailors' experience was a combination of superior rowing skill (physical stamina and/or consistency in hitting with a full stroke) and previous battle experience. The sailors were likely in their thirties and forties.[40] In addition, there were ten sailors handling the masts and the sails.[41]

Rowers[edit]

Depiction of the position and angle of the rowers in a trireme. The form of the parexeiresia, projecting from the deck, is clearly visible.
Contrary to popular perception, in the ancient navies, crews were composed not of galley slaves but of free men. In the Athenian case in particular, service in the ships was the integral part of the military service provided by the lower classes, the thētai, although metics and hired foreigners were also accepted.[42][43] Although it has been argued that slaves formed part of the rowing crew in the Sicilian Expedition,[44] a typical Athenian trireme crew during the Peloponnesian War consisted of 80 citizens, 60 metics and 60 foreign hands.[45] Indeed, in the few emergency cases where slaves were used to crew ships, these were deliberately set free, usually before being employed.[46] For instance, the tyrant Dionysius I of Syracuse once set all slaves ofSyracuse free to man his galleys, employing thus freedmen, but otherwise relied on citizens and foreigners as oarsmen.[47]
In the Athenian navy, the crews enjoyed long practice in peacetime, becoming skilled professionals and ensuring Athens' supremacy in naval warfare. The rowers were divided according to their positions in the ship into thranitaizygitai, and thalamitai. According to the excavated Naval Inventories, lists of ships' equipment compiled by the Athenian naval boards, there were:
  • 62 thranitai in the top row (thranos means "deck"). They rowed through the parexeiresia, an outrigger which enabled the inclusion of the third row of oars without significant increase to the height and loss of stability of the ship. Greater demands were placed upon their strength and synchronization than on those of the other two rows.[48]
  • 54 zygitai in the middle row, named after the beams (zygoi) on which they sat.[48]
  • 54 thalamitai or thalamioi in the lowest row, (thalamos means "hold"). Their position was certainly the most uncomfortable, being underneath their colleagues and also exposed to the water entering through the oarholes, despite the use of the askōma, a leather sleeve through which the oar emerged.[49]
Coordinating the rowing required great skill and practice. It is not known exactly how this was done, but there are literary and visual references to the use of gestures and pipe playing to convey orders to rowers. In the sea trials of the reconstruction Olympias, it was evident that this was a difficult problem to solve, given the amount of noise that a full rowing crew generated. In Aristophanes play The Frogs two different rowing chants can be found: "ryppapai" and "o opop", both corresponding quite well to the sound and motion of the oar going through its full cycle.[50]

Marines[edit]

A varying number of marines (epibatai), usually 10–20, were carried aboard for boarding actions. At the Battle of Salamis, each Athenian ship was recorded to have 14 hoplitesand 4 archers (usually Scythian mercenaries) on board,[51] but Herodotus narrates that the Chiots had 40 hoplites on board at Lade[52] and that the Persian ships carried a similar number.[53] This reflects the different practices between the Athenians and other, less professional navies. Whereas the Athenians relied on speed and maneuverability, where their highly trained crews had the advantage, other states favored boarding, in a situation that closely mirrored the one that developed during the First Punic War. Grappling hooks would be used both as a weapon and for towing damaged ships (ally or enemy) back to shore. When the triremes were alongside each other, marines would either spear the enemy or hop across and cut the enemy down with their swords.[54] As the presence of too many heavily armed hoplites on deck tended to destabilize the ship, the epibataiwere normally seated, only rising to carry out any boarding action.[55] The hoplites belonged to the middle social classes, so that they came immediately next to the trierarch in status aboard the ship.

Tactics[edit]

In the ancient world, naval combat relied on two methods: ramming and boarding. Artillery in the form of ballistas and catapults was widespread, especially in later centuries, but its inherent technical limitations meant that it could not play a decisive role in combat. Rams (embolon) were fitted to the prows of warships, and were used to rupture the hull of the enemy ship. The preferred method of attack was to come in from astern, with the aim not of creating a single hole, but of rupturing as big a length of the enemy vessel as possible. The speed necessary for a successful impact depended on the angle of attack; the greater the angle, the lesser the speed required. At 60 degrees, 4 knots was enough to penetrate the hull, while it increased to 8 knots at 30 degrees. If the target for some reason was in motion in the direction of the attacker, even less speed was required, and especially if the hit came amidships.[56] Another method was to brush alongside the enemy ship, with oars drawn in, in order to break the enemy's oars and render the ship immobile, to be finished off with ease. In any case, prior to engagement, the masts and railings of the ship were taken down, hindering any attempt at using grappling hooks. The Athenians especially became masters in the art of ramming, using light, un-decked (aphraktai) triremes.

On-board forces[edit]

Unlike the naval warfare of other eras, boarding an enemy ship was not the primary offensive action of triremes. Triremes' small size allowed for a limited number of marines to be carried aboard. During the 5th and 4th centuries, the trireme's strength was in its maneuverability and speed, not its armor or boarding force. That said, fleets less confident in their ability to ram were prone to load more marines onto their ships.
On the deck of a typical trireme in the Peloponnesian War there were 4 or 5 archers and 10 or so marines.[57] These few troops were peripherally effective in an offensive sense, but critical in providing defense for the oarsmen. Should the crew of another trireme board, the marines were all that stood between the enemy troops and the slaughter of the men below. It has also been recorded that if a battle were to take place in the calmer water of a harbor, oarsmen would join the offensive and throw stones (from a stockpile aboard) to aid the marines in harassing/attacking other ships.[57]
Most of the rowers (108 of the 170 - the zygitai and thalamitai), due to the design of the ship, were unable to see the water and therefore, rowed blindly.[58]

Naval strategy in the Peloponnesian War[edit]


A schematic view of what the circular kyklos formation would have looked like from above.
Squadrons of triremes employed a variety of tactics. The periplous (Gk., "sailing around") involved outflanking or encircling the enemy so as to attack them in the vulnerable rear; the diekplous (Gk., "Sailing out through") involved a concentrated charge so as to break a hole in the enemy line, allowing galleys to break through and then wheel to attack the enemy line from behind; and the kyklos (Gk., "circle") and the mēnoeidēs kyklos (Gk. "half-circle"; literally, "moon-shaped (i.e. crescent-shaped) circle"), were defensive tactics to be employed against these manoeuvres. In all of these manoeuvres, the ability to accelerate faster, row faster, and turn more sharply than one's enemy was very important.
It is well known that Athens' strength in the Peloponnesian War came from its navy, whereas Sparta's came from its land-based Hoplitearmy. As the war progressed however the Spartans came to realize that if they were to undermine Pericles' strategy of outlasting the Peloponnesians by remaining within the walls of Athens indefinitely (a strategy made possible by Athens' Long Walls and fortified port of Piraeus), they were going to have to do something about Athens superior naval force. Once Sparta gained Persia as an ally, they had the funds necessary to construct the new naval fleets necessary to combat the Athenians. Sparta was able to build fleet after fleet, eventually destroying the Athenian fleet at the Battle of Aegospotami. The Spartan General Brasidas best summed up the difference in approach to naval warfare between the Spartans and the Athenians: "Athenians relied on speed and maneuverability on the open seas to ram at will clumsier ships; in contrast, a Peloponnesian armada might win only when it fought near land in calm and confined waters, had the greater number of ships in a local theater, and if its better-trained marines on deck and hoplites on shore could turn a sea battle into a contest of infantry."[59] In addition, compared to the high-finesse of the Athenian navy (superior oarsmen who could outflank and ram enemy triremes from the side), the Spartans (as well as their allies and other enemies of Athens) would focus mainly on ramming Athenian triremes head on. It would be these tactics, in combination with those outlined by Brasidas, that led to the defeat of the Athenian fleet at the Second Battle of Syracuse during the Sicilian Expedition.

Paying the price at sea[edit]

Once a naval battle was underway, for the men involved, there were numerous ways for them to meet their end. Drowning was perhaps the most common way for a crew member to perish. Once a trireme had been rammed, the ensuing panic that engulfed the men trapped below deck no doubt extended the amount of time it took the men to escape. Inclement weather would greatly decrease the crew's odds of survival, leading to a situation like that off Cape Athos in 411 (12 of 10,000 men were saved).[60] An estimated 40,000 Persians died in the Battle of Salamis. In the Peloponnesian War, after the Battle of Arginusae, six Athenian generals were executed for failing to rescue several hundred of their men clinging to wreckage in the water.[61]
If the men did not meet a watery grave, they might be taken prisoner by the enemy. In the Peloponnesian War, "Sometimes captured crews were brought ashore and either cut down or maimed - often grotesquely, by cutting off the right hand or thumb to guarantee that they could never row again."[62] The image found on an early-5th-century black-figure, depicting prisoners bound and thrown into the sea being pushed and prodded under water with poles and spears, shows that enemy treatment of captured sailors in the Peloponnesian War was often brutal.[63] Being speared amid the wreckage of destroyed ships was likely a common cause of death for sailors in the Peloponnesian War.
Naval battles were far more of a spectacle than the hoplite battles on land. Sometimes the battles raging at sea were watched by thousands of spectators on shore.[54] Along with this greater spectacle, came greater consequences for the outcome of any given battle. Whereas the average percentage of fatalities from a land battle were between 10-15%, in a sea battle, the forces engaged ran the risk of losing their entire fleet. The number of ships and men in battles was sometimes very high. At the Battle of Arginusae for example, 263 ships were involved, making for a total of 55,000 men, and at the Battle of Aegospotami more than 300 ships and 60,000 seamen were involved.[64] In Battle of Aegospotami, the city-state of Athens lost what was left of its navy: the once 'invincible' thalassocracy lost 170 ships (costing some 400 talents), and the majority of the crews were either killed, captured or lost.[64]

Changes of engagement and construction[edit]

During the Hellenistic period, the light trireme was supplanted by larger warships in dominant navies, especially the pentere/quinquereme. The maximum practical number of oar banks a ship could have was three. So the number in the type name did not refer to the banks of oars any more (as for biremes and triremes), but to the number of rowers per vertical section, with several men on each oar. The reason for this development was the increasing use of armour on the bows of warships against ramming attacks, which again required heavier ships for a successful attack. This increased the number of rowers per ship, and also made it possible to use less well-trained personnel for moving these new ships. This change was accompanied by an increased reliance on tactics like boarding, missile skirmishes and using warships as platforms for artillery.
Triremes continued to be the mainstay of all smaller navies. While the Hellenistic kingdoms did develop the quinquereme and even larger ships, most navies of the Greek homeland and the smaller colonies could only afford triremes. They were used by the Diadochi Empires and sea powers like SyracuseCarthage and later Rome. The difference to the classical 5th century Athenian ships was that they were armoured against ramming and carried significantly more marines. Lightened versions of the trireme and smaller vessels were often used as auxiliaries, and still performed quite effectively against the heavier ships, thanks to their greater manoeuvrability.
With the rise of Rome the biggest fleet of quinqueremes temporarily ruled the Mediterranean, but during the civil wars after Caesar's death the fleet was on the wrong side and a new warfare with light liburnas was developed. By Imperial times the fleet was relatively small and had mostly political influence, controlling the grain supply and fighting pirates, who usually employed light biremes and liburnians. But instead of the successful liburnians of the Greek Civil War, it was again centred around light triremes, but still with many marines. Out of this type of ship, the dromon developed.

Reconstruction[edit]

Main article: Olympias (trireme)
In 1985–1987 a shipbuilder in Piraeus, financed by Frank Welsh (an author, Suffolk banker, writer and trireme enthusiast), advised by historian J. S. Morrison and naval architectJohn F. Coates (who with Welsh founded the Trireme Trust that initiated and managed the project), and informed by evidence from underwater archaeology, built a reconstructed Athenian trireme, Olympias.
Crewed by 170 volunteer oarsmen, Olympias in 1988 achieved 9 knots (17 km/h or 10.5 mph). These results, achieved with inexperienced crew, suggest that the ancient writers were not exaggerating about straight-line performance. In addition, Olympias was able to execute a 180 degree turn in one minute and in an arc no wider than two and one half (2.5) ship-lengths. Additional sea trials took place in 1987, 1990, 1992 and 1994. In 2004 Olympias was used ceremonially to transport the Olympic Flame from the port of Keratsini to the main port of Piraeus as the 2004 Olympic Torch Relay entered its final stages in the run-up to the 2004 Summer Olympics opening ceremony.
The builders of the reconstruction project concluded that it effectively proved what had previously been in doubt, i.e.- that Athenian triremes were arranged with the crew positioned in a staggered arrangement on three levels with one person per oar. This architecture would have made optimum use of the available internal dimensions. However, since modern humans are on average approximately 6 cm (2 inches) taller than Ancient Greeks (and the same relative dimensions can be presumed for oarsmen and other athletes), the construction of a craft which followed the precise dimensions of the ancient vessel led to cramped rowing conditions and consequent restrictions on the modern crew's ability to propel the vessel with full efficiency, which perhaps explains why the ancient speed records stand unbroken.