Sunday, December 20, 2015

What Is The Feat Facing The Treat^Mints??



On At long And finally lapsed sting breadth the country is sink in the bled vain as the soap and nail,
that coffin is breached by the shelves that have take to library for the filing land,
as in each ankle the should Mind to think is the Thought of tree Suns ray,
as the berth record on Harbor piers to pile lawns Is the groove of personal 'ven' debt duh or Ven gents??

Ate Menu is Chaucer to the Treaty of Vacant see as the Arbor is slaughtering the Torque by wrench,
screws Bolts arson have toggles on the brains System to a chore It taste the rots,
bodies on the planks to the ditches of the grown by balm.

Made by test Ding goes the shape,
fog on sheds which the Medal is shine,
speak And via will Comet the hull to a Scrub.

Washing tons Event status Sharpens the Pt. Tooth as the grip on a vats Beast,
deep in lines for the Anchor on paid Media hath received while counting the fleece,
wool to the sweat turned drips,
paints that have canned the lid from the Cent to the spend on the hand.

Computation to the chained letter elect shins take pass backwards to certificate on the long shore man,
does the address of clove to spice regard the Nation as the meelworms fed tick,
a pulse to grind the fluff at stand as the Feather gruff to pleasant the plump??

The National Media Broadcasting Cooperation to Not enter View as not Plausible rather dollar,
the drive to Rose Gardens price is the burial of register to the Cost of the News on received,
the Tab let talks to sigh Co. tropics As the scene is Vast lust to Sell secular Soles a footstepped Print.

For criticism has Circle a square to Round the weight as the label runs the rinse in lets go,
hurried to the commercial of seat at/on the White Horse ride as the Rein bow buck Coals the shoe,
boots on the length should have All Raised the IM 'D' IM Eh as the parade drug to the long Listers on scooters,
for the sample of list to the Unrecovered is Titled to strongs.

Strangely the can A bus at the frozen coca-cola with that hare Owe in's barrier boomed,
yet the list goes On and once upon the Story does the Physicians bank the Shallow dried??,
graped on the Vine is this been of the grave,
import to the Pills and the bottle Message fade.

Bummer the whisper is Whistle to the truth,
for these Swamps of stucks don't ever decade advance as in the 1960's the difficult Difference,
tattle that Word to snap a rib the Rift will spin that groove to recording live on the Tile,
the lever to the keen on the level to the dawn,
burn bare Oles dancing under Moon and dancing See Men.

    Psychoactive drug
    A psychoactive drug, psychopharmaceutical, or psychotropic is a chemical substance that changes brain function and results in alterations in perception, mood, or consciousness. Wikipedia

List of psychotropic medications

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
List of medications which are used to treat psychiatric conditions that are on the market in the United States.

A[edit]

B[edit]

C[edit]

D[edit]

E[edit]

  • Effexor - an antidepressant of the SSNRI (or SNRI) class
  • Elavil - a tricyclic antidepressant (TCA), less commonly used these days as an antidepressant or to treat psychiatric conditions (considered a first line treatment option forneuropathic pain)
  • Eskalith - a salt of Lithium, which is a mood stabilizer used to prevent bipolar disorder.

F[edit]

  • Fluoxetine - (Prozac) is an SSRI drug used to treat major depressive disorder, bulimia nervosa (an eating disorder) obsessive-compulsive disorder, panic disorder, and premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD).
  • Fluvoxamine - (Luvox) is the first SSRI drug. It is indicated to treat obsessive compulsive disorder (US) and both OCD and depression elsewhere in the world.

G[edit]

H[edit]

  • Haldol - a "typical" antipsychotic, one of the oldest, usually given in conjunction with "cogentin", an antiparkinsonic. This is due to the high occurrence of tardive dyskinesia on patients with prolonged Haldol use.

I[edit]

J[edit]

K[edit]

L[edit]

M[edit]

  • Mellaril - an antipsychotic, today rarely used

N[edit]

O[edit]

  • Olanzapine - an second generation antipsychotic

P[edit]

  • Paxil - an SSRI antidepressant, used frequently to treat depression and anxiety disorders
  • Phenelzine - (Nardil)-MAOIs for depression
  • Pristiq - an SNRI antidepressant
  • Prolixin - an antipsychotic
  • Prozac - an SSRI antidepressant
  • Phenobarbital- a barbiturate, sedative and hypnotic properties

Q[edit]

  • Quetiapine an antipsychotic drug mainly used to treat schizophrenia

R[edit]

  • Remeron - an antidepressant which is often used as a sleep aid
  • Restoril - a sleep aid of the benzodiazepine class
  • Risperdal - an "atypical" antipsychotic
  • Ritalin - a stimulant used to treat ADHD/ADD

S[edit]

  • Saphris - an atypical antipsychotic
  • Serax - anti -anxiety medication of the benzodiazepine class, often used to help during detoxification from alcohol or other drugs of abuse
  • Sertraline HCl an SSRI class anti-depressant (brand name Zoloft)
  • Seroquel - an "atypical" antipsychotic, sometimes is used as a sleep aid when given in low doses
  • Serzone- an "atypical" antidepressant
  • Stelazine - an older antipsychotic, today rarely used
  • Strattera - a non-stimulant medication used to treat ADD/ADHD
  • Sycrest - an atypical antipsychotic

T[edit]

  • Thorazine - an older antipsychotic, although highly effective it is rarely used today because of the high occurrence of serious side effects
  • Topamax - a mood stabilizer, also used for migraine headaches
  • Trazodone - atypical antidepressant, most typically used now as a sleep aid
  • Trileptal - a mood stabilizer used to treat bipolar disorder
tegretol- antiseizure that can also be used for mood disorder

U[edit]

V[edit]

  • Valium - anti-anxiety medication of the benzodiazepine class
  • Vistaril - an antihistamine for the treatment of itches and irritations, an antiemetic, as a weak analgesic, an opioid potentiator, and as an anxiolytic.
  • Vyvanse - a stimulant used to treat Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder

W[edit]

X[edit]

  • Xanax - an antianxiety medication of the benzodiazepine class

Y[edit]

Z[edit]


Psychoactive drug

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

An assortment of psychoactive drugs—street drugs and medications
A psychoactive drug, psychopharmaceutical, or psychotropic is a chemical substance that changes brain function and results in alterations in perception, mood, or consciousness.[1] These substances may be used recreationally, to purposefully alter one's consciousness, or as entheogens, for ritual, spiritual, or shamanic purposes, as a tool for studying or augmenting the mind. Some categories of psychoactive drugs, which are prescription medicines, have medical therapeutic utility, such asanesthetics, analgesics, hormonal preparations, anticonvulsant and antiparkinsonian drugs or for the treatment of neuro-psychiatric disorders, as hypnotic drugs, anxiolytic and some stimulant medications used in ADHD and some sleep disorders. There are also some psychoactive substances used in the detoxification and rehabilitation programs for psychoactive drug users.
Psychoactive substances often bring about subjective (although these may be objectively observed) changes in consciousness and mood that the user may find rewarding and pleasant (e.g. euphoria) or advantageous (e.g. increased alertness) and are thus reinforcing. Substances which are both rewarding and positively reinforcing have the potential to induce a state of addiction – compulsive drug use despite negative consequences – when used consistently in excess. In addition, sustained use of some substances may produce a physical dependence or psychological dependence syndrome associated with somatic or psychological-emotional withdrawal states respectively. Drug rehabilitation aims to break this cycle of dependency, through a combination of psychotherapy, support groups, maintenance and even other psychoactive substances. However, the reverse is also true in some cases, that certain experiences on drugs may be so unfriendly and uncomforting that the user may never want to try the substance again. This is especially true of the deliriants (e.g. Jimson weed) and powerful dissociatives (e.g. Salvia divinorum). "Psychedelic amphetamines" or empathogen-entactogens (such as MDA and MDMA) may produce an additional stimulant or euphoriant effect, and thus have an addiction potential.
In part because of this potential for substance misuse, addiction, or dependence, the ethics of drug use is debated. Restrictions on drug production and sales in an attempt to decrease drug abuse is very common among national and sub-national governments worldwide. Ethical concerns have also been raised about over-use of these drugs clinically, and about their marketing by manufacturers.

History[edit]


Alcohol is a widely used and abused psychoactive drug. The global alcoholic drinks market was expected to exceed $1 trillion in 2013.[2] Beer is the third-most popular drink overall, after water and tea.[3]
Psychoactive drug use can be traced to prehistory. There is archaeological evidence of the use of psychoactive substances (mostly plants) dating back at least 10,000 years, and historical evidence of cultural use over the past 5,000 years.[4] The chewing of coca leaves, for example, dates back over 8000 years ago in Peruvian society.[5][6]
Medicinal use is one important facet of psychoactive drug usage. However, some have postulated that the urge to alter one's consciousness is as primary as the drive to satiate thirst, hunger or sexual desire.[7] Supporters of this belief contend that the history of drug use and even children's desire for spinning, swinging, or sliding indicate that the drive to alter one's state of mind is universal.[8]
One of the first people to articulate this point of view, set aside from a medicinal context, was American author Fitz Hugh Ludlow (1836–1870) in his book The Hasheesh Eater (1857):
[D]rugs are able to bring humans into the neighborhood of divine experience and can thus carry us up from our personal fate and the everyday circumstances of our life into a higher form of reality. It is, however, necessary to understand precisely what is meant by the use of drugs. We do not mean the purely physical craving...That of which we speak is something much higher, namely the knowledge of the possibility of the soul to enter into a lighter being, and to catch a glimpse of deeper insights and more magnificent visions of the beauty, truth, and the divine than we are normally able to spy through the cracks in our prison cell. But there are not many drugs which have the power of stilling such craving. The entire catalog, at least to the extent that research has thus far written it, may include only opium, hashish, and in rarer cases alcohol, which has enlightening effects only upon very particular characters.[9]
This relationship is not limited to humans. A number of animals consume different psychoactive plants, animals, berries and even fermented fruit, becoming intoxicated, such as cats after consuming catnip. Traditional legends of sacred plants often contain references to animals that introduced humankind to their use.[10] Animals and psychoactive plants appear to have co-evolved, possibly explaining why these chemicals and their receptors exist within the nervous system.[11]
During the 20th century, many governments across the world initially responded to the use of recreational drugs by banning them and making their use, supply, or trade a criminal offense. A notable example of this was Prohibition in the United States, where alcohol was made illegal for 13 years. However, many governments, government officials and persons in law enforcement have concluded that illicit drug use cannot be sufficiently stopped through criminalization. Organizations such as Law Enforcement Against Prohibition (LEAP) have come to such a conclusion, believing:
[T]he existing drug policies have failed in their intended goals of addressing the problems of crime, drug abuse, addiction, juvenile drug use, stopping the flow of illegal drugs into this country and the internal sale and use of illegal drugs. By fighting a war on drugs the government has increased the problems of society and made them far worse. A system of regulation rather than prohibition is a less harmful, more ethical and a more effective public policy.[12][not in citation given]
In some countries, there has been a move toward harm reduction by health services, where the use of illicit drugs is neither condoned nor promoted, but services and support are provided to ensure users have adequate factual information readily available, and that the negative effects of their use be minimized. Such is the case of Portuguese drug policy of decriminalization, which achieved its primary goal of reducing the adverse health effects of drug abuse.[13]

Purposes[edit]

Psychoactive substances are used by humans for a number of different purposes to achieve a specific end. These uses vary widely between cultures. Some substances may have controlled or illegal uses while others may have shamanic purposes, and still others are used medicinally. Other examples would be social drinking, nootropic, or sleep aids.Caffeine is the world's most widely consumed psychoactive substance, but unlike many others, it is legal and unregulated in nearly all jurisdictions. In North America, 90% of adults consume caffeine daily.[14]
Psychoactive drugs are divided into different groups according to their pharmacological effects. Commonly used psychoactive drugs and groups:
Example: Benzodiazepine
Example: MDMA (Ecstasy), MDA, 6-APB, Indopan
  • Stimulants ("uppers"). This category comprises substances that wake one up, stimulate the mind, and may even cause euphoria, but do not affect perception.
Examples: amphetamine, caffeine, cocaine, nicotine
  • Depressants ("downers"), including sedatives, hypnotics, and narcotics. This category includes all of the calmative, sleep-inducing, anxiety-reducing, anesthetizing substances, which sometimes induce perceptual changes, such as dream images, and also often evoke feelings of euphoria.
Examples: ethanol (alcoholic beverages), opioids, barbiturates, benzodiazepines.
Examples: psilocybin, LSD, Salvia divinorum and nitrous oxide.

Uses[edit]

Anesthesia[edit]

Main article: Anesthesia
General anesthetics are a class of psychoactive drug used on people to block physical pain and other sensations. Most anesthetics induce unconsciousness, allowing the person to undergo medical procedures like surgery without the feelings of physical pain or emotional trauma.[16] To induce unconsciousness, anesthetics affect the GABA and NMDAsystems. For example, halothane is a GABA agonist,[17] and ketamine is an NMDA receptor antagonist.[18]

Pain management[edit]

Main article: Analgesics
Psychoactive drugs are often prescribed to manage pain. The subjective experience of pain is primarily regulated by endogenous opioid peptides. Thus, pain can often be managed using psychoactives that operate on this neurotransmitter system, also known as opioid receptor agonists. This class of drugs can be highly addictive, and includesopiate narcotics, like morphine and codeine.[19] NSAIDs, such as aspirin and ibuprofen, are also analgesics. These agents also reduce eicosanoid-mediated inflammation by inhibiting the enzyme cyclooxygenase.

Mental disorders[edit]

Main article: Psychiatric medications

Zoloft (sertraline) is an SSRIantidepressant.
Psychiatric medications are psychoactive drugs prescribed for the management of mental and emotional disorders, or to aid in overcoming challenging behavior.[20] There are six major classes of psychiatric medications:
In addition, several psychoactive substances are currently employed to treat various addictions. These include acamprosate ornaltrexone in the treatment of alcoholism, or methadone or buprenorphine maintenance therapy in the case of opioid addiction.[citation needed]
Exposure to psychoactive drugs can cause changes to the brain that counteract or augment some of their effects; these changes may be beneficial or harmful. However, there is a significant amount of evidence that relapse rate of mental disorders negatively corresponds with length of properly followed treatment regimens (that is, relapse rate substantially declines over time), and to a much greater degree than placebo.[22]

Recreation[edit]

Main article: Recreational drug use
Many psychoactive substances are used for their mood and perception altering effects, including those with accepted uses in medicine and psychiatry. Examples of psychoactive substances include caffeine, alcohol, cocaine, LSD, and cannabis.[23] Classes of drugs frequently used recreationally include:
In some modern and ancient cultures, drug usage is seen as a status symbol. Recreational drugs are seen as status symbols in settings such as at nightclubs and parties.[24] For example, in ancient Egypt, gods were commonly pictured holding hallucinogenic plants.[25]
Because there is controversy about regulation of recreational drugs, there is an ongoing debate about drug prohibition. Critics of prohibition believe that regulation of recreational drug use is a violation of personal autonomy and freedom.[26] In the United States, critics have noted that prohibition or regulation of recreational and spiritual drug use might beunconstitutional, and causing more harm than is prevented.[27]

Ritual and spiritual[edit]


Timothy Leary was a leading proponent of spiritual hallucinogen use.
Main article: Entheogens
Certain psychoactives, particularly hallucinogens, have been used for religious purposes since prehistoric times. Native Americans have usedpeyote cacti containing mescaline for religious ceremonies for as long as 5700 years.[28] The muscimol-containing Amanita muscaria mushroom was used for ritual purposes throughout prehistoric Europe.[29] Various other hallucinogens, including jimsonweed, psilocybin mushrooms, andcannabis, have been used in religious ceremonies for millennia.[30]
The use of entheogens for religious purposes resurfaced in the West during the counterculture movements of the 1960s and 70s. Under the leadership of Timothy Leary, new spiritual and intention-based movements began to use LSD and other hallucinogens as tools to access deeper inner exploration. In the United States, the use of peyote for ritual purposes is protected only for members of the Native American Church, which is allowed to cultivate and distribute peyote. However, the genuine religious use of peyote, regardless of one's personal ancestry, is protected in Colorado, Arizona, New Mexico, Nevada, and Oregon.[31]

Military[edit]

Main article: Psychochemical weapons
Psychoactive drugs have been used in military applications as non-lethal weapons. In World War II, between 1939 and 1945, 60 millionamphetamine pills were made for use by soldiers.[citation needed] Brown-brown, a form of cocaine adulterated with gunpowder, has been used in the Sierra Leone Civil War by child soldiers.[citation needed]
Both military and civilian American intelligence officials are known to have used psychoactive drugs while interrogating captives apprehended in its War on Terror. In July 2012,Jason Leopold and Jeffrey Kaye, psychologists and human rights workers, had a Freedom of Information Act request fulfilled that confirmed that the use of psychoactive drugs during interrogation was a long-standing practice.[32][33] Captives and former captives had been reporting medical staff collaborating with interrogators to drug captives with powerful psychoactive drugs prior to interrogation since the very first captives' release.[34][35] In May 2003, recently released Pakistani captive Sha Mohammed Alikhel described the routine use of psychoactive drugs. He said that Jihan Wali, a captive kept in a nearby cell, was rendered catatonic through the use of these drugs.

Route of administration[edit]

Psychoactive drugs are administered via oral ingestion as a tablet, capsule, powder, liquid, and beverage; via inhalation; via injection by subcutaneous, intramuscular, andintravenous route; via rectum by suppository and enema; and via inhalation by smoking, vaporization and insufflation ("snorting"). The efficiency of each method of administration varies from drug to drug.[36]
The psychiatric drugs fluoxetine, quetiapine, and lorazepam are ingested orally in tablet or capsule form. Alcohol and caffeine are ingested in beverage form; nicotine andcannabis are smoked or vaped; peyote and psilocybin mushrooms are ingested in botanical form or dried; and crystalline drugs such as cocaine and methamphetamines are usually insufflated (inhaled or "snorted").

Determinants of effects[edit]

The theory of dosage, set, and setting is a useful model in dealing with the effects of psychoactive substances, especially in a controlled therapeutic setting as well as in recreational use. Dr. Timothy Leary, based on his own experiences and systematic observations on psychedelics, developed this theory along with his colleagues Ralph Metzner, and Richard Alpert (Ram Dass) in the 1960s.[37]
Dosage
The first factor, dosage, has been a truism since ancient times, or at least since Paracelsus who said, "Dose makes the poison." Some compounds are beneficial or pleasurable when consumed in small amounts, but harmful, deadly, or evoke discomfort in higher doses.
Set
The set is the internal attitudes and constitution of the person, including their expectations, wishes, and fears. This factor is especially important for the hallucinogens, which have the ability to make conscious experiences out of the unconscious. In traditional cultures, set is shaped primarily by the worldview that all the members of the culture share.
Setting
The third aspect is setting, which pertains to the surroundings, the place, and the time in which the experiences transpire.
This theory clearly states that the effects are equally the result of chemical, pharmacological, psychological, and physical influences. The model that Timothy Leary proposed applied to the psychedelics, although it also applies to other psychoactives.[38]

Effects[edit]


Illustration of the major elements ofneurotransmission. Depending on its method of action, a psychoactive substance may block the receptors on the post-synaptic neuron (dendrite), or block reuptake or affect neurotransmitter synthesis in the pre-synaptic neuron (axon).
Main article: Neuropsychopharmacology
Psychoactive drugs operate by temporarily affecting a person's neurochemistry, which in turn causes changes in a person's mood, cognition, perception and behavior. There are many ways in which psychoactive drugs can affect the brain. Each drug has a specific action on one or more neurotransmitter or neuroreceptor in the brain.
Drugs that increase activity in particular neurotransmitter systems are called agonists. They act by increasing the synthesis of one or more neurotransmitters, by reducing its reuptake from the synapses, or by mimicking the action by binding directly to the postsynaptic receptor. Drugs that reduce neurotransmitter activity are called antagonists, and operate by interfering with synthesis or blocking postsynaptic receptors so that neurotransmitters cannot bind to them.[39]
Exposure to a psychoactive substance can cause changes in the structure and functioning of neurons, as the nervous system tries to re-establish the homeostasis disrupted by the presence of the drug (see also, Neuroplasticity). Exposure to antagonists for a particular neurotransmitter can increase the number of receptors for that neurotransmitter or the receptors themselves may become more responsive to neurotransmitters; this is called sensitization. Conversely, overstimulation of receptors for a particular neurotransmitter may cause a decrease in both number and sensitivity of these receptors, a process called desensitization or tolerance. Sensitization and desensitization are more likely to occur with long-term exposure, although they may occur after only a single exposure. These processes are thought to play a role in drug dependence and addiction.[40] Physical dependence on antidepressants or anxiolytics may result in worse depression or anxiety, respectively, as withdrawal symptoms. Unfortunately, because clinical depression (also called major depressive disorder) is often referred to simply asdepression, antidepressants are often requested by and prescribed for patients who are depressed, but not clinically depressed.

Affected neurotransmitter systems[edit]

The following is a brief table of notable drugs and their primary neurotransmitter, receptor or method of action. It should be noted that many drugs act on more than one transmitter or receptor in the brain.[41]
Neurotransmitter/receptorClassificationExamples
Acetylcholine.svg

Acetylcholine
Cholinergics(acetylcholine receptor agonists)arecoline, nicotine, piracetam
Muscarinic antagonists(acetylcholine receptor antagonists)scopolamine, benzatropine, dimenhydrinate, diphenhydramine, atropine, quetiapine, olanzapine, most tricyclics
Nicotinic antagonists(acetylcholine receptor antagonists)memantine, bupropion
Adenosin.svg
Adenosine
Adenosine receptor antagonists[42]caffeine, theobromine, theophylline
Dopamine2.svg

Dopamine
Dopamine reuptake inhibitors (DRIs)cocaine, bupropion, methylphenidate, and certain TAAR1 agonists like amphetamine, phenethylamine,methamphetamine
Dopamine releasersagomelatine and certain TAAR1 agonists like amphetamine, phenethylamine, methamphetamine
Dopamine receptor agonistspramipexole, Ropinirole, L-DOPA (prodrug), memantine (also see NMDA, below)
Dopamine receptor antagonistshaloperidol, droperidol, many antipsychotics (e.g., risperidone, olanzapine, quetiapine)
Dopamine receptor partial agonistsLSD, aripiprazole

Gamma-Aminobuttersäure - gamma-aminobutyric acid.svg

gamma-Aminobutyric acid(GABA)
GABA reuptake inhibitorstiagabine, vigabatrin
GABA receptor agonistsethanol, barbiturates, diazepam, clonazepam, lorazepam, temazepam, alprazolam and other benzodiazepines,zolpidem, eszopiclone, zaleplon and other nonbenzodiazepines, muscimol
GABA receptor antagoniststhujone, bicuculline
Norepinephrine structure with descriptor.svg

Norepinephrine
Norepinephrine reuptake inhibitorsmost non-SSRI antidepressants such as amoxapine, atomoxetine, bupropion, venlafaxine, quetiapine, the tricyclics,methylphenidate, SNRIs such as duloxetine, venlafaxine, and certain TAAR1 agonists like amphetamine,phenethylamine, methamphetamine.
Norepinephrine releasersephedrine, mianserin, mirtazapine, PPA, pseudoephedrine, amphetamine, phenethylamine, methamphetamine
Norepinephrine receptor agonistsclonidine, guanfacine, phenylephrine
Norepinephrine receptor antagonistscarvedilol, metoprolol, mianserin, prazosin, propranolol, trazodone, yohimbine, olanzapine
Serotonin.svg
Serotonin
Selective serotoninreceptor agonistsmethylphenidate, LSD, psilocybin, mescaline, DMT
Serotonin reuptake inhibitorsmost antidepressants including tricyclics such as imipramine, SSRIs such as fluoxetine, sertraline and citalopram, andSNRIs such as duloxetine and venlafaxine, certain TAAR1 agonists like amphetamine, tryptamine, methamphetamine, and cocaine
Serotonin releasersfenfluramine, MDMA (ecstasy), mephedrone, mirtazapine, tramadol, tryptamine
Serotonin receptor antagonistsritanserin, mirtazapine, mianserin, trazodone, cyproheptadine, memantine, atypical antipsychotics (e.g., risperidone,olanzapine, quetiapine)
AMPA.svg
AMPA receptor
AMPA receptor positive allosteric modulatorsaniracetam, CX717, piracetam
AMPA receptor antagonistskynurenic acid, NBQX, topiramate
Tetrahydrocannabinol.svg
Cannabinoid receptor
Cannabinoid receptor agonistsJWH-018
Cannabinoid receptor partial agonistsAnandamide, THC, cannabidiol, cannabinol
Cannabinoid receptor inverse agonistsRimonabant
Anandamide reuptake inhibitors [43]LY 2183240, VDM 11, AM 404
FAAH enzyme inhibitorsMAFP, URB597, N-Arachidonylglycine
Melanocortin receptor
Melanocortin receptor agonistsbremelanotide
NMDA receptor
NMDA receptor antagonistsethanol, ketamine, PCP, DXM, Nitrous Oxide, glutamate, memantine (used for moderate to severe Alzheimers)
GHB receptor
GHB receptor agonistsGHB, Amisulpride, T-HCA
Sigma receptor
Sigma-1 receptor agonistscocaine, DMT, DXM, fluvoxamine, ibogaine, opipramol, PCP, methamphetamine
Sigma-2 receptor agonistsmethamphetamine
Opioid receptor
μ-opioid receptor agonistsmorphine, heroin, oxycodone, codeine
μ-opioid receptor partial agonistsbuprenorphine
μ-opioid receptor inverse agonistsnaloxone
μ-opioid receptor antagonistsnaltrexone
κ-opioid receptor agonistssalvinorin A, butorphanol, nalbuphine, pentazocine, ibogaine[44]
κ-opioid receptor antagonistsbuprenorphine
Histamine receptor
H1 histamine receptorantagonistsdiphenhydramine, doxylamine, mirtazapine, mianserin, quetiapine, olanzapine, meclozine, dimenhydrinate, mosttricyclics
Monoamine oxidase
Monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs)phenelzine, iproniazid, tranylcypromine
Melatonin receptor
Melatonin receptoragonistsramelteon
Imidazoline receptor
Imidazoline receptoragonistsapraclonidine, clonidine, moxonidine, rilmenidine
Orexin receptor
Orexin receptor agonistsmodafinil
Orexin receptorantagonistsSB-334,867, SB-408,124, TCS-OX2-29

Addiction and dependence[edit]

Addiction and dependence glossary[45][46][47]
• addiction – a state characterized by compulsive engagement in rewarding stimuli despite adverse consequences
• addictive behavior – a behavior that is both rewarding and reinforcing
• addictive drug – a drug that is both rewarding and reinforcing
• dependence – an adaptive state associated with a withdrawal syndrome upon cessation of repeated exposure to a stimulus (e.g., drug intake)
• drug sensitization or reverse tolerance – the escalating effect of a drug resulting from repeated administration at a given dose
• physical dependence – dependence that involves persistent physical–somatic withdrawal symptoms (e.g., fatigue and delirium tremens)
• psychological dependence – dependence that involves emotional–motivational withdrawal symptoms (e.g., dysphoria and anhedonia)
• reinforcing stimuli – stimuli that increase the probability of repeating behaviors paired with them
• rewarding stimuli – stimuli that the brain interprets as intrinsically positive or as something to be approached
• sensitization – an amplified response to a stimulus resulting from repeated exposure to it
• tolerance – the diminishing effect of a drug resulting from repeated administration at a given dose
• withdrawal – symptoms that occur after chronic use of a drug is reduced abruptly or stopped
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Main articles: addiction and Î”FosB

Comparison of the perceived harm for various psychoactive drugs from a poll among medical psychiatrists specialized in addiction treatment (David Nutt et al. 2007).[48]
Psychoactive drugs are often associated with addiction or drug dependence. Dependence can be divided into two types:psychological dependence, by which a user experiences negative psychological or emotional withdrawal symptoms (e.g., depression) and physical dependence, by which a user must use a drug to avoid physically uncomfortable or even medically harmful physical withdrawal symptoms.[49] Drugs that are both rewarding and reinforcing are addictive; these properties of a drug are mediated through activation of the mesolimbic dopamine pathway, particularly the nucleus accumbens. Not all addictive drugs are associated with physical dependence, e.g., amphetamine, and not all drugs that produce physical dependence are addictive drugs, e.g., caffeine.
Many professionals, self-help groups, and businesses specialize in drug rehabilitation, with varying degrees of success, and many parents attempt to influence the actions and choices of their children regarding psychoactives.[50]
Common forms of rehabilitation include psychotherapy, support groups and pharmacotherapy, which uses psychoactive substances to reduce cravings and physiological withdrawal symptoms while a user is going through detox. Methadone, itself an opioid and a psychoactive substance, is a common treatment for heroin addiction, as is another opioid,buprenorphine. Recent research on addiction has shown some promise in using psychedelics such as ibogaine to treat and even cure drug addictions, although this has yet to become a widely accepted practice.[51][52]

Legality[edit]


Historical image of legal heroin bottle
Main article: Prohibition of drugs
The legality of psychoactive drugs has been controversial through most of recent history; the Second Opium War andProhibition are two historical examples of legal controversy surrounding psychoactive drugs. However, in recent years, the most influential document regarding the legality of psychoactive drugs is the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, an international treaty signed in 1961 as an Act of the United Nations. Signed by 73 nations including the United States, theUSSR, India, and the United Kingdom, the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs established Schedules for the legality of each drug and laid out an international agreement to fight addiction to recreational drugs by combatting the sale, trafficking, and use of scheduled drugs.[53] All countries that signed the treaty passed laws to implement these rules within their borders. However, some countries that signed the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, such as theNetherlands, are more lenient with their enforcement of these laws.[54]
In the United States, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has authority over all drugs, including psychoactive drugs. The FDA regulates which psychoactive drugs are over the counter and which are only available with a prescription.[55]However, certain psychoactive drugs, like alcohol, tobacco, and drugs listed in the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs are subject to criminal laws. The Controlled Substances Act of 1970 regulates the recreational drugs outlined in the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs.[56]Alcohol is regulated by state governments, but the federal National Minimum Drinking Age Actpenalizes states for not following a national drinking age.[57] Tobacco is also regulated by all fifty state governments.[58] Most people accept such restrictions and prohibitions of certain drugs, especially the "hard" drugs, which are illegal in most countries.[59][60][61]
In the medical context, psychoactive drugs as a treatment for illness is widespread and generally accepted. Little controversy exists concerning over the counter psychoactive medications inantiemetics and antitussives. Psychoactive drugs are commonly prescribed to patients with psychiatric disorders. However, certain critics believe that certain prescription psychoactives, such as antidepressants and stimulants, are overprescribed and threaten patients' judgement and autonomy.[62][63]

See also[edit]

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