Thursday, March 24, 2016

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Wiktionary

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Wiktionary
Wiktionary logoWiktionary logo
Detail of the Wiktionary main page. All major wiktionaries are listed by number of articles.
Screenshot of wiktionary.org home page
Web addresswww.wiktionary.org
SloganThe Free Dictionary
Commercial?No
Type of site
Online dictionary
RegistrationOptional
Available inMulti-lingual (over 170)
OwnerWikimedia Foundation
Created byJimmy Wales and theWikimedia community
LaunchedDecember 12, 2002; 13 years ago
Alexa rank
Increase 828 (January 2016)[1]
Current statusactive
Wiktionary (whose name is a blend of the words wiki and dictionary) is a multilingual, web-based project to create a free contentdictionary of all words in all languages. It is available in 172 languages and in Simple English. Like its sister project Wikipedia, Wiktionary is run by the Wikimedia Foundation, and is written collaboratively by volunteers, dubbed "Wiktionarians". Its wiki software,MediaWiki, allows almost anyone with access to the website to create and edit entries.
Because Wiktionary is not limited by print space considerations, most of Wiktionary's language editions provide definitions and translations of words from many languages, and some editions offer additional information typically found in thesauri and lexicons. The English Wiktionary includes a Wikisaurus (thesaurus) of synonyms of various words.
Wiktionary data are frequently used in various natural language processing tasks.

History and development

Wiktionary was brought online on December 12, 2002,[a] following a proposal by Daniel Alston and an idea by Larry Sanger, co-founder of Wikipedia.[b] On March 28, 2004, the first non-English Wiktionaries were initiated in French and Polish. Wiktionaries in numerous other languages have since been started. Wiktionary was hosted on a temporary domain name (wiktionary.wikipedia.org) until May 1, 2004, when it switched to the current domain name.[c] As of May 2009, Wiktionary features well over 5 million entries across its 272 language editions. By August 2015, the total entry count was over 15 million.[2] The largest of the language editions is the English Wiktionary, with over 4.5 million entries, followed by the Malagasy Wiktionary with over 3.9 million entries and the French Wiktionary with over 2.8 million. Thirty six Wiktionary language editions now contain over 100,000 entries each.[d]

The use of bots to generate large numbers of articles is visible as "growth spurts" in this graph of article counts at the largest eight Wiktionary editions. (Data as of December 2009)
Most of the entries and many of the definitions at the project's largest language editions were created by bots that found creative ways to generate entries or (rarely) automatically imported thousands of entries from previously published dictionaries. Seven of the 18 bots registered at the English Wiktionary[e] created 163,000 of the entries there.[3]
Another of these bots, "ThirdPersBot," was responsible for the addition of a number ofthird-person conjugations that would not have received their own entries in standard dictionaries; for instance, it defined "smoulders" as the "third-person singular simple present form of smoulder." Of the 648,970 definitions the English Wiktionary provides for 501,171 English words, 217,850 are "form of" definitions of this kind.[4] This means its coverage of English is slightly smaller than that of major monolingual print dictionaries. The Oxford English Dictionary, for instance, has 615,000 headwords, while Merriam-Webster's Third New International Dictionary of the English Language, Unabridged has 475,000 entries (with many additional embedded headwords). Detailed statistics exist to show how many entries of various kinds exist.
The English Wiktionary does not rely on bots to the extent that some other editions do. The French and Vietnamese Wiktionaries, for example, imported large sections of the Free Vietnamese Dictionary Project (FVDP), which provides free content bilingual dictionaries to and from Vietnamese.[f] These imported entries make up virtually all of the Vietnamese edition's contents. Almost all non-Malagasy-language entries of the Malagasy Wiktionary were copied by bot from other Wiktionaries. Like the English edition, the French Wiktionary has imported the approximately 20,000 entries from the Unihan database of Chinese, Japanese, and Korean characters. The French Wiktionary grew rapidly in 2006 thanks in large part to bots copying many entries from old, freely licensed dictionaries, such as the eighth edition of theDictionnaire de l'Académie française (1935, around 35,000 words), and using bots to add words from other Wiktionary editions with French translations. The Russian edition grew by nearly 80,000 entries as "LXbot" added boilerplate entries (with headings, but without definitions) for words in English and German.[5]

Logos

Wiktionary has historically lacked a uniform logo across its numerous language editions. Some editions use logos that depict a dictionary entry about the term "Wiktionary", based on the English Wiktionary logo, which was designed by Brion Vibber, a MediaWiki developer.[g] Because a purely textual logo must vary considerably from language to language, a four-phase contest to adopt a uniform logo was held at the Wikimedia Meta-Wiki from September to October 2006.[h] Some communities adopted the winning entry by "Smurrayinchester", a 3×3 grid of wooden tiles, each bearing a character from a different writing system. However, the poll did not see as much participation from the Wiktionary community as some community members had hoped, and a number of the larger wikis ultimately kept their textual logos.[h]
In April 2009, the issue was resurrected with a new contest. This time, a depiction by "AAEngelman" of an open hardbound dictionary won a head-to-head vote against the 2006 logo, but the process to refine and adopt the new logo then stalled.[i] In the following years, some wikis replaced their textual logos with one of the two newer logos. In 2012, 55 wikis that had been using the English Wiktionary logo received localized versions of the 2006 design by "Smurrayinchester".[j] As of 25 January 2013, 136 wikis, representing 51% of Wiktionary's entries, use the 2006 design by "Smurrayinchester", 31 wikis (48%) use a textual logo, and three wikis (2%) use the 2009 design by "AAEngelman".[k]

Accuracy

To ensure accuracy, the English Wiktionary has a policy requiring that terms be attested.[6] Terms in major languages such as English and Chinese must be verified by:
  1. clearly widespread use, or
  2. use in permanently recorded media, conveying meaning, in at least three independent instances spanning at least a year.
For smaller languages such as Creek and extinct languages such as Latin, one use in a permanently recorded medium or one mention in a reference work is sufficient verification.

Critical reception

Critical reception of Wiktionary has been mixed. In 2006 Jill Lepore wrote in the article "Noah's Ark" for The New Yorker,[l]
There's no show of hands at Wiktionary. There's not even an editorial staff. "Be your own lexicographer!", might be Wiktionary's motto. Who needs experts? Why pay good money for a dictionary written by lexicographers when we could cobble one together ourselves?

Wiktionary isn't so much republican or democratic as Maoist. And it's only as good as the copyright-expired books from which it pilfers.
Keir Graff's review for Booklist was less critical:
Is there a place for Wiktionary? Undoubtedly. The industry and enthusiasm of its many creators are proof that there's a market. And it's wonderful to have another strong source to use when searching the odd terms that pop up in today's fast-changing world and the online environment. But as with so many Web sources (including this column), it's best used by sophisticated users in conjunction with more reputable sources.[citation needed]
References in other publications are fleeting and part of larger discussions of Wikipedia, not progressing beyond a definition, although David Brooks in The Nashua Telegraphdescribed it as wild and woolly.[m] One of the impediments to independent coverage of Wiktionary is the continuing confusion that it is merely an extension of Wikipedia.[n] In 2005,PC Magazine rated Wiktionary as one of the Internet's "Top 101 Web Sites",[8] although little information was given about the site.
The measure of correctness of the inflections for a subset of the Polish words in the English Wiktionary showed that this grammatical data is very stable. Only 131 out of 4748 Polish words have had their inflection data corrected.[9]

Wiktionary data in natural language processing

Wiktionary has semi-structured data.[10] Wiktionary lexicographic data should be converted to machine-readable format in order to be used in natural language processingtasks.[11][12][13]
Wiktionary data mining is a complex task. There are the following difficulties:[14] (1) the constant and frequent changes to data and schemata, (2) the heterogeneity in Wiktionary language edition schemata [o] and (3) the human-centric nature of a wiki.
There are several parsers for different Wiktionary language editions:[15]
  • DBpedia Wiktionary:[16] a subproject of DBpedia, the data are extracted from English, French, German and Russian wiktionaries; the data includes language, part of speech, definitions, semantic relations and translations. The declarative description of the page schema,[17] regular expressions[18] and finite state transducer[19] are used in order to extract information.
  • JWKTL (Java Wiktionary Library):[20] provides access to English Wiktionary and German Wiktionary dumps via a Java Wiktionary API.[21] The data includes language, part of speech, definitions, quotations, semantic relations, etymologies and translations. JWKTL is available for non-commercial use.
  • wikokit:[22] the parser of English Wiktionary and Russian Wiktionary.[23] The parsed data includes language, part of speech, definitions, quotations,[24][p] semantic relations[25]and translations. This is a multi-licensed open-source software.
  • Etymological entries have been parsed in the Etymological WordNet project.[26]
The various natural language processing tasks were solved with the help of Wiktionary data:[27]
  • Rule-based machine translation between Dutch language and Afrikaans; data of English Wiktionary, Dutch Wiktionary and Wikipedia were used with the Apertium machine translation platform.[28]
  • Construction of machine-readable dictionary by the parser NULEX, which integrates open linguistic resources: English Wiktionary, WordNet, and VerbNet.[29] The parser NULEX scrapes English Wiktionary for tense information (verbs), plural form and part of speech (nouns).
  • Speech recognition and synthesis, where Wiktionary was used to automatically create pronunciation dictionaries.[30] Word-pronunciation pairs were retrieved from 6 Wiktionary language editions (Czech, English, French, Spanish, Polish, and German). Pronunciations are in terms of the International Phonetic Alphabet.[q] The ASR system based on English Wiktionary has the highest word error rate, where each third phoneme has to be changed.[32]
  • Ontology engineering[33] and semantic network constructing.[r]
  • Ontology matching.[34]
  • Text simplification. Medero & Ostendorf[35] assessed vocabulary difficulty (reading level detection) with the help of Wiktionary data. Properties of words extracted from Wiktionary entries (definition length and POS, sense, and translation counts) were investigated. Medero & Ostendorf expected that (1) very common words will be more likely to have multiple parts of speech, (2) common words to be more likely to have multiple senses, (3) common words will be more likely to have been translated into multiple languages. These features extracted from Wiktionary entries were useful in distinguishing word types that appear in Simple English Wikipedia articles from words that only appear in the Standard English comparable articles.
  • Part-of-speech tagging. Li et al. (2012)[36] built multilingual POS-taggers for eight resource-poor languages on the basis of English Wiktionary and Hidden Markov Models.[s]
  • Sentiment analysis.[37]

Statistics https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/knew

    Most common English words before 1923: mind · heart · going · #205: knew · seen · better · name

    Wiktionary:Frequency lists

    Shortcuts:
    WT:FL
    WT:FREQ
    Counting words and lemmas: The following frequency lists count distinct orthographic words, including inflected forms. For example, the verb "to be" is represented by the conjugations "is", "are", "were", etc.

    English[edit]

    TV and movie scripts[edit]

    Most common words in TV and movie scripts: Here are frequency lists comparable to the Gutenberg ones, but based on 29,213,800 words from TV and movie scripts and transcripts.
    Here's a fuller explanation of how the list was generated and its limitations: Wiktionary:Frequency lists/TV/2006/explanation.
    Here are the top hundred words (from tv scripts) in alphabetical order:
    a · about · all · and · are · as · at · back · be · because · been · but · can · can't · come · could · did · didn't · do · don't · for · from · get · go · going · good · got · had · have ·he · her · here · he's · hey · him · his · how · I · if · I'll · I'm · in · is · it · it's · just · know · like · look · me · mean · my · no · not · now · of · oh · OK · okay · on · one · or · out ·really · right · say · see · she · so · some · something · tell · that · that's · the · then · there · they · think · this · time · to · up · want · was · we · well · were · what · when ·who · why · will · with · would · yeah · yes · you · your · you're
    Here they are in frequency order:
    1-1000 · 1001-2000 · 2001-3000 · 3001-4000 · 4001-5000 · 5001-6000 · 6001-7000 · 7001-8000 · 8001-9000 · 9001-10000
    Top 1,000 words cover 85.5% of all words (24,981,922/29,213,800).
    Top 10,000 words cover 97.2% of all words (28,398,152/29,213,800).
    From the 10,000th to the 40,000th :
    10001-12000 · 12001-14000 · 14001-16000 · 16001-18000 · 18001-20000 · 20001-22000 · 22001-24000 · 24001-26000 · 26001-28000 · 28001-30000 · 30001-32000 ·32001-34000 · 34001-36000 · 36001-38000 · 38001-40000
    40001-41284 (the dregs that were tied for the final place)
    That'll probably be it. It's a third of all the unique words. The rest were used 5 or fewer times each.

    Specific TV Series Dictionaries[edit]

    Project Gutenberg[edit]

    Most common words in Project Gutenberg:
    These lists are the most frequent words, when performing a simple, straight (obvious) frequency count of all the books found on Project Gutenberg. The list of books was downloaded in July 2005, and "rsynced" monthly thereafter. These are mostly English words, with some other languages finding representation to a lesser extent. Many Project Gutenberg books are scanned once their copyright expires, typically book editions published before 1923, so the language does not necessarily always represent current usage. For example, "thy" is listed as the 253rd most common word. Also, with 24,000+ books, the text of the boilerplate warning for Project Gutenberg appears on each of them.
    Here are the top 100 words from Project Gutenberg texts in alphabetical order:
    These wikified terms can be copied to other language wiktionaries; this is what they are intended for. If you do, please add an interwiki link onto the page here.
    Frequency lists as of 2006-04-16:
    Frequency lists as of 2005-10-10:
    • More to come...
    Frequency lists as of 2005-08-16:
    From the straight frequency count, the current copy of Wiktionary was then removed from that list. Even entries that only have a redirect were removed.
    With somewhat different filtering/selection criteria:
    The location of the latest version:

    Contemporary fiction[edit]

    The 2,000 most common words in contemporary fiction can be found here:
    The 2,000 most common words in contemporary fiction can be found here divided into 60 subject categories.
    This lumps regular lemmas of the same word together, unlike most of these lists.

    Contemporary poetry[edit]

    The 2,000 most common words in contemporary poetry can be found here:
    Another lemma-based list.

    Top English words lists[edit]

    Word families[edit]

    Albanian[edit]

    Arabic[edit]

    Bulgarian[edit]

    Catalan[edit]

    Czech[edit]

    Danish[edit]

    Dutch[edit]

    The thirteen most popular Dutch words:
    From Max Havelaar (numbers between parentheses denote occurrences):
    1. de (4770)
    2. en (2709)
    3. het, 't (2469)
    4. van (2259)
    5. ik (1999)
    6. te (1935)
    7. dat (1875)
    8. die (1807)
    9. in (1639)
    10. een (1637)
    11. hij (1328)
    12. niet (1162)
    13. zijn (1049)
    University of Leipzig Frequency Lists:
    Frequency of diacritic characters in Dutch:
    From diacritical marks in the Dutch language. A list of almost 250,000 Dutch words contained a total of 3538 diacritics:
    CharacterFrequency
    ë1762
    ï599
    é468
    è248
    ö171
    ê71
    ü61
    ó35
    ç30
    á24
    à17
    ä16
    û8
    î7
    í5
    ô4
    ú4
    ñ4
    â3
    Å1

    Esperanto[edit]

    Estonian[edit]

    Finnish[edit]

    From CSC IT Center for Science - 9996 most common Finnish words Creative Commons Attribution-NoDerivs-NonCommercial 1.0 Finland (CC BY-ND-NC 1.0)

    French[edit]

    Frequency lists from http://wortschatz.uni-leipzig.de/html/wliste.html with the authorization from the laboratory.
    Top French words from subtitles based on www.opensubtitles.org
    Note: these indicative lists still require some cleanup, because:
    1. they don't unify common words that are normally not capitalized in the dictionary, but can be capitalized at the begining of sentences or in titles;
    2. they do not break correctly words preceded by a separate word contracted with an apostrophe for very common articles (l') or preposition (d') or negation adverb (n') or pronoun (c', j', l', m', s', t'), or verbal liaison particles (-t-, -z-, which are not really words as they don't have any meaning but are written for phonetic reason), or pronoun subjects just after the verb (after a mandatory linking hyphen, that still does not make a compound word but denotes the inversion of the subject rather than the normal occurrence of an object): all these words should be counted separately;
    3. the source is certainly from Belgian French written papers only, with typical occurrences for that country and no equivalence for France, or other French speaking countries where these words are much rarely used (such as currency abbreviations, Belgian toponyms for regions and cities, and many missing terms for very common specialties in France);
    4. the list contains isolated letters that are not words, per se (except a few effective words: a, à, y);
    5. as well, there are acronyms and symbols occurring only in written documents but not as part of the spoken language;
    6. frequent proper names are included but are not very specific to any of the 4 studied languages.
    This list does not unify inflected words (with plural or feminine mark on nouns or adjectives, or conjugated verbs), and does not recognize auxiliaries of verbs at compound tenses as part of the conjugated verb, but treat auxiliaries separately for each inflected form.
    Frequent nouns:

    Galician[edit]

    Georgian[edit]

    German[edit]

    German words in Wikipedia:
    See also the 100, 1000, or 10 000 most frequent words.
    Top 2000 German words from subtitles:
    User:Matthias Buchmeier's Unformatted German frequency list. This list has been generated in 2009 from TV and movie subtitles with a total of 25399099 words. This list can be used under the terms of the cc-by-sa, GFDL or LGPL licenses.
    Top 10000 German words:
    Frequent nouns:

    Greek[edit]

    Hebrew[edit]

    Hindi[edit]

    Hungarian[edit]

    Icelandic[edit]

    Icelandic verbs

    Indonesian[edit]

    Italian[edit]

    Top 1000 Italian words from subtitles:

    Japanese[edit]

    Frequent nouns:

    Khmer[edit]

    Korean[edit]

    Frequent nouns:

    Latvian[edit]

    Lithuanian[edit]

    Lü[edit]

    Mandarin[edit]

    Frequent nouns:

    Macedonian[edit]

    Malay[edit]

    Nepali[edit]

    Norwegian[edit]

    Bokmål and Nynorsk[edit]

    Bokmål[edit]

    Nynorsk[edit]

    Persian[edit]

    Polish[edit]

    Top 200 Polish words:

    Portuguese[edit]

    Unidades e palavras em língua portuguesa: frequência e ordem

    Brazilian Portuguese[edit]

    Romanian[edit]

    Russian[edit]

    Frequent nouns:

    Serbo-Croatian[edit]

    Slovak[edit]

    Slovene[edit]

    50 most frequent Slovene words, Primož Jakopin research:
    je , in , se , v , da , na , so , ne , pa , ki , bi , za , z , ni , sem , ga , še , po , s , tako , ko , tudi , to , bil , ali , si , mu , od , bilo , kot , že , iz , kaj , bo , če , vse , bila , kakor , mi , pri ,jo , kar , jih , sta , o , do , ti , kako , samo , me

    Spanish[edit]

    Top 10000 Spanish words from subtitles:
    Frequent nouns:

    Swedish[edit]

    Tagalog[edit]

    Here are the Character Frequency of he letters in Tagalog[1] (Excluding the 2 letters like Ññ and NGng):
    CharacterFrequency
    A24.25% (≈1/4)
    N11.77% (≈105/900)
    G8.51% (≈115/1000)
    I7.89% (≈126/1000)
    S5.6% (≈178/1000)
    T4.87% (≈205/1000)
    M4.27%
    O4.19%
    L3.77%
    K3.61%
    Y3.08%
    U2.98%
    P2.84%
    R2.23%
    E2.22%
    H2.08%
    D2%
    B1.9%
    W0.93%
    You may noticed a better way to remember these in order by thinking of ANGIST-MOLKY-UPREH-D-B-W. Also N and G got quite hing due to the fact that the letter NGng adds it up at very high percentages.

    Thai[edit]

    Turkish[edit]

    Ukrainian[edit]

    Vietnamese[edit]

    Yiddish[edit]



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