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Its Just Love!!
Posted:2016-02-04 13:45:22 UTC-08:00
Go placidly amid the noise and the haste, and remember what peace there may be in silence. As far as possible, without surrender, be on good terms with all persons.Speak your truth quietly and clearly; and listen to others, even to the dull and the ignorant; they too have their story.Avoid loud and aggressive persons; they are vexatious to the spirit. If you compare yourself with others, you may become vain or bitter, for always there will be greater and lesser persons than yourself.Enjoy your achievements as well as your plans. Keep interested in your own career, however humble; it is a real possession in the changing fortunes of time.Exercise caution in your business affairs, for the world is full of trickery. But let this not blind you to what virtue there is; many persons strive for high ideals, and everywhere life is full of heroism.Be yourself. Especially, do not feign affection. Neither be cynical about love; for in the face of all aridity and disenchantment, it is as perennial as the grass.Take kindly the counsel of the years, gracefully surrendering the things of youth.Nurture strength of spirit to shield you in sudden misfortune. But do not distress yourself with dark imaginings. Many fears are born of fatigue and loneliness.Beyond a wholesome discipline, be gentle with yourself. You are a child of the universe no less than the trees and the stars; you have a right to be here.And whether or not it is clear to you, no doubt the universe is unfolding as it should. Therefore be at peace with God, whatever you conceive Him to be.And whatever your labors and aspirations, in the noisy confusion of life, keep peace in your soul. With all its sham, drudgery and broken dreams, it is still a beautiful world. Be cheerful. Strive to be happy.
The Hour Of The Minute Is A Thoroughpin??
Posted:2016-02-04 13:04:52 UTC-08:00
Wise are the points of the hoarse as the reason for the Core a Net band??,should the bell Oh grasp the Cause to strength than the *Windpuff would be Owe k??
*Wind puffs worry many horse owners, especially if they appear rather suddenly and for no particluar reason. You will always want to check with your vet, whether there is an underlying medical problem or injury that needs to be addressed. If your vet assures you that there is nothing to worry about, there are still a few things you can to do help minimize ‘wind puffs’.
What are ‘Wind Puffs’ or ‘Wind Galls’ in horses?Wind puffs is a common term do describe an unsightly swelling in the hind fetlock joints. The swelling is commonly a sign of fluid accumulation in the joint.We need to differentiate between two types of wind puffs: A) Swelling that occurs as an accute response to stress, hard work or injury (when palpated, the swelling feels soft and ‘bounces back’ to the touch, there can be heat and the horse is clearly uncomfortable, expressed by gait abnormalities and/or sensitive when palpated) – or – B) Swelling that occurs as a result of old injury (stretched tissues, years of hard work, insufficient turn out) and feels just like the first type, but is cold to the touch and does not seem to present discomfort to the horse.You will need your vet’s help to determine, whether your horse’s wind puffs are type A) or type B) (Note: these type names only serve to simplify this article, your vet will not know what “Stefanie’s type A) wind puff” is ;-).What causes wind puffs?Regarding type A) described above (accute injury), please speak to your vet, especially if the swelling occurs suddenly and is accompanied by other symptoms like lameness. We will only talk about type B) here, which is usually caused by old injury to the fetlock joint or digital flexor tendon sheaths, years of hard work and stress to this anatomical structure, for instance to work on hard surfaces (police horses, for example), often combined with a lack of turnout. In this case, the swelling will tend to become chronic even long after the original injury is healed.What you can do to minimize unsightly wind puffs:Even though it is assumed that there is no discomfort in “type B)”, you may feel the need to reduce the swelling and help your horse look as good as he feels.Every Day: Simply allow your horse to get as much turnout as possible. Standing in a stall will exacerbate the problem. If this is not possible – for instance due to weather conditions such as Blizzard etc. – allow your horse to get sufficient daily exercise, preferably free lunging, in an indoor arena.Before a show: Start to cold-hose the fetlocks a few days before the show and gently bandage the legs at night after applying an ointment containing Horse Chestnut Extract. (I like this product, but do not endorse it or guarantee it’s efficacy or suitability for your purposehttp://www.smallflower.com/klinge/venostasin-creme-50g-cream-12798)A note about chronic wind puffs: Some types of chronic wind puffs can harden and then again become the cause for certain problems. While this is rare, you will want to address this question with your vet, if you feel that your horse’s wind puffs have been hardening over time.Most of all: Don’t worry. If your vet says, there is nothing to worry about, you can be sure it’s more of a cosmetic problem.[I do not currently have a good photograph of a horse with wind puffs. Please feel free to submit one tostef@reinholdshorsewellness.com , thank you.]
Fee Be Why's The String??
Posted:2016-02-04 12:08:04 UTC-08:00
What did the Equine Information drive to the leg of Humanity via a Wrap??,the before the After of the Velcro ad Hee shin there Was sum Thing called a Safe tee Pen??,this was a Stock Tie??,A belt??,or the Jack it to Core^a^Spawn^Dents of fish EAN the price of the Trail on scene to eh Hearst??
What Word Master's WOW??
Posted:2016-02-04 11:34:11 UTC-08:00
\AL-puh n-gloh\ noun
1. a reddish glow often seen on the summits of mountains just before sunrise or just after sunset.Quotes Now came the solemn, silent evening. Long, blue, spiky shadows crept out across the snow-fields, while a rosy glow, at first scarce discernible, gradually deepened and suffused every mountain-top, flushing the glaciers and the harsh crags above them. This was the alpenglow, to me one of the most impressive of all the terrestrial manifestations of God.
-- John Muir, The Mountains of California, 1894Origin Alpenglow comes from the German word Alpenglühen in which the first element, Alpen, refers to the Alps, and the second element, glühen, means "to glow." It entered English in the mid-1800s. \AL-puh n-gloh\ noun
1. a reddish glow often seen on the summits of mountains just before sunrise or just after sunset.Quotes Now came the solemn, silent evening. Long, blue, spiky shadows crept out across the snow-fields, while a rosy glow, at first scarce discernible, gradually deepened and suffused every mountain-top, flushing the glaciers and the harsh crags above them. This was the alpenglow, to me one of the most impressive of all the terrestrial manifestations of God.
-- John Muir, The Mountains of California, 1894Origin Alpenglow comes from the German word Alpenglühen in which the first element, Alpen, refers to the Alps, and the second element, glühen, means "to glow." It entered English in the mid-1800s. Alpenglow
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Alpenglow at sunset, Mt. Everest, Nepal.Alpenglow (from German: Alpenglühen) is an optical phenomenon in which a horizontal red glowing band is observed on the horizon opposite to the sun. This effect occurs when the Sun is just below the horizon. Alpenglow is easiest to observe when mountains are illuminated but can also be observed when the sky is illuminated throughbackscattering.Since the Sun is below the horizon, there is no direct path for the light to reach the mountain. Unlike sunset or sunrise, the light that causes alpenglow is reflected off airborne snow, water, or ice particles low in the atmosphere. These conditions differentiate between a normal sunrise or sunset and alpenglow.Although the term may be loosely applied to any sunrise or sunset light seen on the mountains, true alpenglow is not direct sunlight and is only observed after sunset or before sunrise.In the absence of mountains, the aerosols in the eastern portion of the sky can be illuminated in the same way at sunset by the remaining red scattered light straddling the border of the Earth's own shadow (the terminator). Thisback-scattered light produces a red band opposite the Sun.
Tom Saw^You're Tacks^Ease??
Posted:2016-02-04 10:20:00 UTC-08:00
Should the Religious ought Too See not Not squint to the A bull It tea of Centuries red than Its a Jug lee Ore on land Ding,the rings of the skirt to touch Hemming on the Jewels is the Ran Sid sump of Crews a chain,it is Not Not the Neigh of what is Whom to Wares and Beens,it is much the muster of the Trumpets braking the Sealed waxed Letters of Scribble dead Scrolls!!Turn side to side that a walk a cross the floor ride in this Now soar`d of jump Pin jax's??,the constant flow of language Mouths to not bits and Peace says that jack Ole is Pump keen??,knope.Is that A Word??,is it a Clause??,is it a Knicker??,is it a Cal. in dure??,is it a Day See??,is it a Cal. 'V' awe Reed??,is it a Flew ID??,is it a Com. Bow??,is it a Combine??,is it a Pre EST??,is it a Poe Op??,is it a Say Ain't??,is it a Van it Tee??,is it a Mere??,is it a Hand dull??,is it a Face Shoal??,is it a Sole A Men??,is it a All Tour??,is it a Lit Toll??,is it a Stag grr??,is it a . . . . .Its a lei`T say Yen a Lo haw!!,Hell OH,Hell Owe,Hello,Good By,Good Buy,Goodbye??,Goods @ Miens.
A^Tension East Coasts Mad^eh^Son Square Guard^Dean??
Posted:2016-02-04 06:50:19 UTC-08:00
Belle!!
Hay Christie Remember The Whys A Stock Pin The Off^Cute Of The Belt From The Stirrup Or From The Rein In That Won Day Clove Is Hitch That Widger Did??
Posted:2016-02-04 06:29:35 UTC-08:00
Dawn^Tee's^In^Fern^Know is the Wall Berth of eh Many tribes to Script Well??,night the Hour on the Minute to Task??,true to compass the Turn^Key is Minor harp at Tax to String Met^Toll`d Ore Methodology??,trip the journal and creek to Rivers bank as the Lumber is tim Burrs to shoulders Pack ken.
Steep foot to 'Cause in and that Tree poles to Flags??,a oper^eh^shin to Relation ships that Pay roo??,or is it the In iron Meant that Schools sew See lodge gees Mark??,revelations to the chapter on verse in book??,line buy Sentence??treasure Iowa as the Perch chose to Fish in the bait and Tack Call.
Now on the evident Package it is the stagger of the Rest rooms Mentality??,a burst of In Ur gees that froth the Mouth of language to ladder day Trains reins and Auto mow Beals??,what Heat you to sheeps Wool of Mammoth??,a lamp light Dim murmur of the Whisper screech to Awl??,the Bind dure Is just a Look into the mirror of Real it Tee.
The Fare Ease Of An Act^Chew^All Price On Throwing A Clip??
Posted:2016-02-04 05:41:05 UTC-08:00
What is a Clip on a Horse Shoe Cleat??,why does the Horseshoer direct bore the Whole to Terrafirma on the Track??,roads and gallop Poles??,grip & Grasp.
Whats a stud/cox to the Picture of the Work in the File to touch Chin??,is it the Forge or the drill of the Rasp that Ray Tog Na Zee Knee knew the Technical file??,should the Iron bend and the Mould be Warped than Why is the Hot Shoe on dig a Deep font??,whom is the Hammer should the Nail say Sting is it the Song of a bow E!! on Sing??,is the see Dee a Pull lead to bounce the Grid??,do those Tee 'V' dinners Speak Volumes on the Knight radio gone Pong??.
Bing twilight to the San Francisco Cable Cars is the Rice a row^Knee Treat^Ed!!,be Sure to dial the Scope of gear on the Shift is the den^chure of bits and Tales??,more's Code to Big Brother Hold ding Company as these Days of hour Nape pulls??,Greece is the Owe^Limp^Picks??,ore of the Earth to sphere It Call,numbers on The Bounce??,Cricket with Jim Mi WOF fir`d??.
Bee duh Grot Z uh is a is a Clinic that Seat Duh rose to the MAA^sheen of Show Sheen??,cop^Per^talks at the sea be of the Truck currs??,over Hall is the freight Tiers of wait??,Weight??, slip??, Slide?? cleats?? or Bolts thread id??,
Checks & Bowel^In^Says that Time is All 'Wii' have Had to deal the See Mint??,Ed dee New the Open Stile as that Pad dock to Con verse Say shin at the dew Dull bug Tagged??,why bother the E!^Lec.^Shin procession signs to Knee^On the Ed^It^Tore^e!^Ole fact Tour of Oh rye lead??.
What Is A Pry Ore??
Posted:2016-02-04 04:54:05 UTC-08:00
Pass squall X to Boe Han Inn lathe is Zack eh Rye is the To fold of Ore^awe^Ga^mi,singing Ware^Ever the Reason announced to that Cat File??,no that was the Coo pawn of a very particular Haul.Hitch^In's to Hard where is More than Best of Show to these Problem Mat tick poles Say tree,Value Giant to Giant Value was Zims down the Geary to Jeff's Jeans on the Corner of said a cent,dents??,know the paint be Hinge to the Save Yore??,no,that must~*Turd (T. Cru^**ss) is the Obvious on the Speechless off 'Ist' and to Stitch is Umm??However put in the plates of license and the vertical Limb it has reached A Knew Haight on Ashbury Straights!![turd]noun, Slang: Vulgar. 1.a piece of excrement.2.a mean, contemptible person.Origin of turdDictionary.com Unabridged
Based on the Random House Dictionary, © Random House, Inc. 2016.
Cite This SourceBritish Dictionary definitions for turdturd
/tɜːd/noun (slang)1.a lump of dung; piece of excrement2.*an unpleasant or contemptible person or thingUsage noteThis word was formerly considered to be taboo, and it was labelled as suchin previous editions of Collins English Dictionary. However, it has nowbecome acceptable in speech, although some older or more conservativepeople may object to its useWord OriginOld English tord ; related to Old Norse tordy fill dung beetle, Dutch tort dungCollins English Dictionary - Complete & Unabridged 2012 Digital Edition
© William Collins Sons & Co. Ltd. 1979, 1986 © HarperCollins
Publishers 1998, 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2009, 2012
Cite This SourceWord Origin and History for turdn.Old English tord, from Proto-Germanic *turdam (cf. Middle Dutch torde"piece of excrement," Old Norse tord-yfill, Dutch tort-wevel "dung beetle"),from PIE *drtom, past participle of root *d(e)r- "flay, tear," thus "that whichis separated (or torn off) from the body" (cf. shit from root meaning "tosplit;" Greek skatos from root meaning "to cut off; see scatology ). As atype of something worthless and vile, it is attested from mid-13c.A tord ne yeue ic for eu alle ["The Owl and the Nightingale," c.1250]
Meaning "despicable person" is recorded from mid-15c.
Alle thingis ... I deme as toordis, that I wynne Crist. [Wyclif, Phil. iii.8,1382; KJV has "I count all things but loss for the excellency of theknowledge of Christ Jesus my Lord"]Online Etymology Dictionary, © 2010 Douglas Harper
Cite This SourceSlang definitions & phrases for turdT someone up
verb phraseTo call the maximum permissible number of technical fouls : He had alreadyT'd Barkley up for a technical foul. Now he did the same for Oakley, andsummarily threw him out of the arena (1990s+ Basketball)The Dictionary of American Slang, Fourth Edition by Barbara Ann Kipfer, PhD. and Robert L. Chapman, Ph.D.
Copyright (C) 2007 by HarperCollins Publishers.
Cite This Sourcess
or ss
SS
S, s
[es]noun, plural S's or Ss, s's or ss. 1.the 19th letter of the English alphabet, a consonant.2.any spoken sound represented by the letter S or s, as in saw, sense, orgoose.3.something having the shape of an S.4.a written or printed representation of the letter S or s.5.a device, as a printer's type, for reproducing the letter S or s.S/S
1.same size.SS.1
1.Saints.Origin< Latin sānctīSS.2
ss.1
or SS
1.to wit; namely (used especially on legal documents, as an affidavit, pleading, etc., to verify the place of action).Origin< Latin scīlicetss.2
S.S.1
1.(in prescriptions) in the strict sense.Origin< Latin sēnsū strictōS.S.2
Dictionary.com Unabridged
Based on the Random House Dictionary, © Random House, Inc. 2016.
Cite This SourceExamples from the Web for ssContemporary Examples- Indeed, it was the only German military operation in WWII conductedentirely by the ss, not the army.
- Men like Langbehn were firmly on the far right völkisch orbit before theyfound their place in the ss.
- On the evening of January 6, 1923, Tallulah boarded the ss Majestic.
- Jarek remarks that the ss officer who sentenced 5,000 Poles here to diewas still alive last year, living in Germany, age 92.
- I never heard a relative or my parents or grandparents talk about thegreatne ss of ss or Medicare.
Historical Examples- The ss man fumed inwardly because he could not get a clear picture of that"Bo ss."Man of Many Minds E. Everett Evans
- Political prisoners are no longer confined in the fortre ss of ss.From Paris to New York by Land Harry de Windt
- The entire collar contains twenty-eight ss, fourteen roses, thirteen knots,and measures sixty-four inches.Old and New London Walter Thornbury
- The library in which these fittings occur is attached to the church of ss.The Care of Books John Willis Clark
- Praxedis and Pudentiana with leafy crowns in their hands; and at a lowerlevel, but more in front, ss.Walks in Rome Augustus J.C. Hare
British Dictionary definitions for ssSS
abbreviation1.a paramilitary organization within the Nazi party that provided Hitler'sbodyguard, security forces including the Gestapo, concentration campguards, and a corp of combat troops (the Waffen-SS) in World War II2.steamship3.Sunday schoolWord Origin(sense 1) German Schutzstaffel protection squadSS.
abbreviation1.SaintsCollins English Dictionary - Complete & Unabridged 2012 Digital Edition
© William Collins Sons & Co. Ltd. 1979, 1986 © HarperCollins
Publishers 1998, 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2009, 2012
Cite This Sourcess in Sciences - Abbreviation of second (of time), second (of an arc)
- The symbol for strangeness.
S
The symbol for sulfur.The American Heritage® Science Dictionary
Copyright © 2002. Published by Houghton Mifflin. All rights reserved.
Cite This Sourcess in CultureSS definition
An elite corps of combat troops (SS is short for Schutzstaffel, which isGerman for “protective shield”) formed originally within the German Naziparty as a bodyguard for Adolf Hitler and other Nazi leaders and led byHeinrich Himmler. During the 1930s, Hitler steadily expanded theresponsibilities of the SS to include the suppression of his politicalopponents within Germany and the persecution of the Jews. The SSsupervised the concentration camps.The American Heritage® New Dictionary of Cultural Literacy, Third Edition
Copyright © 2005 by Houghton Mifflin Company.
Published by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.
Cite This SourceRelated Abbreviations for ssss
1.sentence structure2.single-stranded3.Siswati4.steady stateSS
1.saints2.saline solution3.Saturday-Sundayss.
1.Latin scilicet (that is to say, namely)2.sections3.Latin semis (one half)s/s
same sizeThe American Heritage® Abbreviations Dictionary, Third Edition
Copyright © 2005 by Houghton Mifflin Company.
Published by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.
Cite This Source
How Does A Cue Card Draw Blood??
Posted:2016-02-04 03:35:52 UTC-08:00
Computer on the lap top of a now hour is the min. it Trick to that psychological Degree on grades??,dock tores are not difficult to sound for all the off^ice muster is a plug to the enter Net of chorus,in the bank of that charge there is know Check-Up on these days of sack the sack the sum Mon. kneeing,for the truth of years on the job to straight up song`d to the compass of that Plaque at trip location was tears.In the sail town next to the city the only remaining evident was the name,that name did not match any dock Cue meant to that same on the left right twas,than on that the original record of reason from Zacharias to particular was for certain,Time on the job to the knowing of no Move for course to come.A Hall list it Dock Tier is on the Hour of a Computers hub in Stead??,for the Watch to the Technical lean go is not near this comprehension aye Saw it in the Venue of steep,UN^Less/Lest/Lease these Treasures have Chest the Pandora of Education goes to the Screen??,what Ever the journey to Reality Witness of this said Last said on Move Ease of filed,Wares on Per sun All is Up for the grabs of nursing the In Toot of App. Lick Cake shin??,why the Matter has not come to Visual after the In cyst Tents of eyes Upon shoulders is Desk Scrip shunned??,this is a War??,this is a Fax??,or a palm to Urn on the Massage of Complete shin??.To have Whom been the in Courage meant to arch Feat than to disappear was queer to my dye,read to the Neets??,when is the Trots of Med. it Call on the Act??,win the Nut is cracked and the Meet is know long grr than a Name Tag with a pleat??,hemming on the Jims,making but Tour rum Rise to The drink of Cough Fin a fish to Tell in a stagger of Con fee Dents??.True to Form at a Bull a defining Toon on this Sear E! us with Watts as Holmes in Vest too gates??,the bridge game??,poke Curr face??black Jack and Cards with Roo let to Choir the Concert^Tina wire with Morse Coded vernacular miss Sing??,the words to those Per script Shins have stoop to Porch the scoot of Scene??,Wells are Depth to Comp. Pre^Hint^Shin as this is the Cent Tense of a Tale or a Ped.??
Say^Lean^Knee^Yum
Posted:2016-02-03 19:16:03 UTC-08:00
Sure the Herb bowl cure E! ought to does Teas to put to the body of Knowledge a Ma^durn,the understanding of sew much came from the centuries on a large Tremendous of comprehension,as the SID night Radio has mentioned the raise of Wares it scenes a concern to those Naturals,the bearing of Carrot Juice to My Mothers Aunt tee Went to the File as not being lacks.To discuss the Only form of fee cyst Shin on the farm a Suit a Calls is truly productive,the skull and that Hippo craft to the Oath of bringing more than take a still,the movement of consistency is the 1000's of years on the Compasses that purr love,it is the Missing Link.Aye urn seems to be the People on dates but what truth does a Figurine price to statute??,is it threads??,silks??,need dulls??,X Pier E! Hints??,'X' peer A Mints??,words on the spice of flavor 'Salt shore Pepper Or eat'??To the Tooth!!
What Is A Read Letter??
Posted:2016-02-03 18:39:03 UTC-08:00
Electoral fraud
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaElectoral fraud or vote rigging is illegal interference with the process of an election. Acts of fraud affect vote counts to bring about an election result, whether by increasing the vote share of the favored candidate, depressing the vote share of the rival candidates, or both. What constitutes electoral fraud under law varies from country to country.Many kinds of election fraud are outlawed in electoral legislation, but others are in violation of general laws, such as those banningassault, harassment or libel. Although technically the term 'electoral fraud' covers only those acts which are illegal, the term is sometimes used to describe acts which are legal but nevertheless considered morally unacceptable, outside the spirit of electoral laws, or in violation of the principles of democracy.[1] Show elections, in which only one candidate can win, are sometimes considered to be electoral fraud, although they may comply with the law.In national elections, successful electoral fraud can have the effect of a coup d'état or corruption of democracy. In a narrow electiona small amount of fraud may be enough to change the result. Even if the outcome is not affected, fraud can still have a damaging effect if not punished, as it can reduce voters' confidence in democracy. Even the perception of fraud can be damaging as it makes people less inclined to accept election results. Fraudulent elections can lead to the breakdown of democracy and the establishment or ratification of a dictatorship.Fraud in elections is not limited to those for public office (and also shades even into castings of votes where only an honorary role is at stake) so long as a cheater perceives a potential gain as worth the risk. Thus elections for a corporation's directors, labor unionofficials, student councils, etc. are subject to similar fraud, as are sports judging, and the awarding of merit to works of art and literature.Contents
[hide]- 1Specific methods
- 2Vote fraud in legislature
- 3Prevention
- 4Notable legislation
- 5See also
- 6Further reading
- 7References
- 8External links
Specific methods
A list of threats to voting systems, or electoral fraud methods, is kept by the National Institute of Standards and Technology.[2]Electorate manipulation[edit]
Electoral fraud can occur in advance of voting if the composition of the electorate is altered. The legality of this type of manipulation varies across jurisdictions. Deliberate manipulation of election outcomes is widely considered a violation of the principles of democracy.[3]Manipulation of demography[edit]
In many cases it is possible for authorities to artificially control the composition of an electorate in order to produce a foregone result. A famous example is of Kuwait in the 1980s elections.[clarification needed] One way of doing this, is to move a large number of voters into the electorate prior to an election, for example by temporarily assigning them land or lodging them in flophouses.[4][5] Many countries prevent this with rules stipulating that a voter must have lived in an electorate for a minimum period (for example, six months) in order to be eligible to vote there. However, such laws can themselves be used for demographic manipulation as they tend to disenfranchise those with no fixed address, such as the homeless, travelers, Roma, students (studying full-time away from home) and some casual workers.Another strategy is to permanently move people into an electorate, usually through public housing. If people eligible for public housing are likely to vote for a particular party, then they can either be concentrated into one electorate, thus making their votes count for less, or moved into marginal electorates, where they may tip the balance towards their preferred party. One notable example of this occurred in the City of Westminster under Shirley Porter.[6]Immigration law may also be used to manipulate electoral demography. An example of this happened in Malaysia when immigrants from neighboring Philippines and Indonesia were given citizenship, together with voting rights, in order for a political party to "dominate" the state of Sabah in a controversial process referred to as Project IC.[7]A method of manipulating primary contests and other elections of party leaders is related to this. People who support one party may temporarily join another party in order to help elect a weak candidate for that party's leadership, in the hope that they will be defeated by the leader of the party that they secretly support.Disenfranchisement[edit]
The composition of an electorate may also be altered by disenfranchising some types of people, rendering them unable to vote. In some cases, this may be done at a legislative level, for example by passing a law banning prison inmates (or even former prison inmates), recent immigrants or members of a particular ethnic or religious group from voting, or by instituting a literacy or other test which members of some groups are more likely to fail. Since this is done by lawmakers, it cannot be election fraud, but may subvert the purposes of democracy. This is especially so if members of the disenfranchised group were particularly likely to vote a certain way.In some cases voters may be invalidly disenfranchised, which is true electoral fraud. For example a legitimate voter may be 'accidentally' removed from the electoral roll, making it difficult or impossible for the person to vote. Corrupt election officials may misuse voting regulations such as a literacy test or requirement for proof of identity or address in such a way as to make it difficult or impossible for their targets to cast a vote. If such practices discriminate against a religious or ethnic group, they may so distort the political process that the political order becomes grossly unrepresentative, as in the post-Reconstruction or Jim Crow era until the Voting Rights Act of 1965.Groups may also be disenfranchised by rules which make it impractical or impossible for them to cast a vote. For example, requiring people to vote within their electorate may disenfranchise serving military personnel, prison inmates, students, hospital patients or anyone else who cannot return to their homes. Polling can be set for inconvenient days such as midweek or on Holy Days (example: Sabbath or other holy days of a religious group whose teachings determine that voting is a prohibited on such a day) in order to make voting difficult for those studying or working away from home. Communities may also be effectively disenfranchised if polling places are not provided within reasonable proximity (rural communities are especially vulnerable to this) or situated in areas perceived by some voters as unsafe.A particular example of this strategy is the Canadian federal election of 1917, where the Union government passed the Military Voters Act and the Wartime Elections Act. The Military Voters Act permitted any active military personnel to vote by party only and allow that party to decide in which electoral district to place that vote. It also enfranchised women who were directly related or married to an active soldier. These groups were widely assumed to be disproportionately in favor of the Union government, as that party was campaigning in favor of conscription. The Wartime Elections Act, conversely, disenfranchised particular ethnic groups assumed to be disproportionately in favor of the opposition Liberal Party.In 2012, 10 American states passed laws requiring photo ID at the ballot box, citing protection against electoral fraud. However, a study by the Brennan Center for Justice at theNew York University Law School concluded that minorities, the poor and the elderly are less likely to have photo ID, and that such groups were more likely to live long distances from ID-issuing offices.[8] Additionally, partisan politics has been exposed as a major factor in the introduction of voter ID legislation, as such legislation would disenfranchise many people who vote for Democratic Party nominees, benefiting the Republican Party in elections.Division of opposition support[edit]
Stanford University professor Beatriz Magaloni described a model governing the behavior of autocratic regimes. She proposed that ruling parties can maintain political control under a democratic system without actively manipulating votes or coercing the electorate. Under the right conditions, the democratic system is maneuvered into an equilibrious state in which divided opposition parties act as unwitting accomplices to single-party rule. This permits the ruling regime to abstain from illegal electoral fraud.[9]During the 2016 United States Republican presidential primary season, following the revelation that Republican candidate Donald Trump had discussed the possibility of his campaign with Bill Clinton — husband of front-running Democrat candidate Hillary Clinton — opposing candidates and news media outlets suggested that Trump's campaign might be a fraudulent ploy to divide support for the eventual Republican nominee.[10][11][12][13][14] After signing a September 2015 pledge not to run as an independent candidate, Trump threatened to rescind the pledge in December.[15][16]Preferential voting systems such as instant-runoff voting and single transferable vote are designed to prevent systemic electoral manipulation and political duopoly.[17][18]Intimidation[edit]
Voter intimidation involves putting undue pressure on a voter or group of voters so that they will vote a particular way, or not at all. Absentee and other remote voting can be more open to some forms of intimidation as the voter does not have the protection and privacy of the polling location. Intimidation can take a range of forms.- Violence or the threat of violence: In its simplest form, voters from a particular demographic or known to support a particular party or candidate are directly threatened by supporters of another party or candidate or by those hired by them. In other cases, supporters of a particular party make it known that if a particular village or neighborhood is found to have voted the 'wrong' way, reprisals will be made against that community. Another method is to make a general threat of violence, for example a bomb threat which has the effect of closing a particular polling place, thus making it difficult for people in that area to vote.[19] One notable example of outright violence was the 1984 Rajneeshee bioterror attack, where followers of Bhagwan Shree Rajneesh deliberately contaminated salad bars in The Dalles, Oregon, in an attempt to weaken political opposition during county elections.
- Attacks on polling places: Polling places in an area known to support a particular party or candidate may be targeted for vandalism, destruction or threats, thus making it difficult or impossible for people in that area to vote.
- Legal threats: In this case voters will be made to believe, accurately or otherwise, that they are not legally entitled to vote, or that they are legally obliged to vote a particular way. Voters who are not confident about their entitlement to vote may also be intimidated by real or implied authority figures who suggest that those who vote when they are not entitled to will be imprisoned, deported or otherwise punished.[20][21] For example in 2004, in Wisconsin and elsewhere voters allegedly received flyers that said, "If you already voted in any election this year, you can’t vote in the Presidential Election", implying that those who had voted in earlier primary elections were ineligible to vote. Also, "If anybody in your family has ever been found guilty of anything you can’t vote in the Presidential Election." Finally, "If you violate any of these laws, you can get 10 years in prison and your children will be taken away from you."[22][23] Another method, allegedly used in Cook County, Illinois in 2004, is to falsely tell particular people that they are not eligible to vote.[21]
Vote buying[edit]
The most famous episodes of vote buying came in 18th century England, when two or more rich aristocrats spent whatever money it took to win. The notorious "Spendthrift election" came in Northamptonshire in 1768, when three earls spent over ₤100,000 each to win a seat.[24]Voters may be given money or other rewards for voting in a particular way, or not voting. In some jurisdictions, the offer or giving of other rewards is referred to as "electoral treating".[25] Electoral treating remains legal in some jurisdictions, such as in the Seneca Nation of Indians.[26]Misinformation[edit]
People may distribute false or misleading information in order to affect the outcome of an election.[1] For example, in the Chilean Presidential election of 1970 the Central Intelligence Agency used "black propaganda"—materials purporting to be from various political parties—to sow discord between members of a coalition between socialists and communists.[27]Another way in which misinformation can be used is to give voters incorrect information about the time or place of polling, thus causing them to miss their chance to vote. TheDemocratic Party of Wisconsin alleged that Americans for Prosperity engaged in this when a flier printed in August 2011 gave an incorrect return date for absentee ballots - Americans for Prosperity alleged it was a misprint.[28][29][30] As part of the 2011 Canadian federal election voter suppression scandal, Elections Canada traced fraudulent phone calls telling voters that their polling stations had been moved to a telecommunications company which worked for the Conservative Party.[31] More recently in 2014, Americans for Prosperity were again accused of distributing voter misinformation, by mailing out incorrect or misleading information to hundreds of thousands of mailers which included the wrong deadline for voter registration and other inaccurate information.[32] Americans for Prosperity Deputy Director Donald Bryson claimed the mailings were a mistake and that they had not paid enough attention to detail.[33]Misleading or confusing ballot papers[edit]
Ballot papers may be used to discourage votes for a particular party or candidate, using design or other features which confuse voters into voting for a different candidate. For example, in the 2000 U.S. presidential election, Florida's butterfly ballot paper was criticized as confusing some voters into giving their vote to the wrong candidate. Ironically, however, the ballot was designed by a Democrat, the party most harmed by this design.[34] Poor or misleading design is not usually illegal and therefore not technically election fraud, but can subvert the principles of democracy.A similar approach has been used in Sweden, where a system with separate ballots for each party is used. Ballots from Sweden Democrats have there been mixed with ballots from the bigger Swedish Social Democratic Party, which used a very similar font for the party name written on the top of the ballot.Another method of confusing people into voting for a different candidate than they intended is to run candidates or create political parties with similar names or symbols as an existing candidate or party. The aim is that enough voters will be misled into voting for the false candidate or party to influence the results.[35] Such tactics may be particularly effective when a large proportion of voters have limited literacy in the language used on the ballot paper. Again, such tactics are usually not illegal but often work against the principles of democracy.Another way of possible electoral confusion, is multiple variations of voting by different electoral systems. This is unwittingly cause ballot papers to be invalid, if the wrong system is employed such as putting a first-past-the-post cross in a numbered single transferable vote ballot paper. For example in Scotland, there are four different voting systems employed. They are single transferable vote for local elections, additional member system for Scottish parliamentary elections, first-past-the-post for national elections & party list system in European elections.Ballot stuffing[edit]
A specialized ballot box used to assist ballot stuffing, featured in Frank Leslie's Illustrated Newspaper in 1856.Ballot stuffing is when one person submits multiple ballots during a vote in which only one ballot per person is permitted. The name originates from the earliest days of this practice in which people literally did stuff more than one ballot in a ballot box at the same time.Ballot stuffing is possible with one version of the Sequoia touchscreen voting machine. It has a yellow button on the back side which when pressed allows repeated vote stuffing. By design, pressing the button triggers the emanation of two audible beeps.[36]Misrecording of votes[edit]
Many elections feature multiple opportunities for unscrupulous officials or 'helpers' to record an elector's vote differently from their intentions. Voters who require assistance to cast their votes are particularly vulnerable to having their votes stolen in this way. For example, a blind person or one who cannot read the language of the ballot paper may be told that they have voted for one party when in fact they have been led to vote for another. This is similar to the misuse of proxy votes; however in this case the voter will be under the impression that they have voted with the assistance of the other person, rather than having the other person voting on their behalf.Where votes are recorded through electronic or mechanical means, the voting machinery may be altered so that a vote intended for one candidate is recorded for another.Misuse of proxy votes[edit]
Proxy voting is particularly vulnerable to election fraud, due to the amount of trust placed in the person who casts the vote. In several countries there have been allegations of retirement home residents being asked to fill out 'absentee voter' forms. When the forms are signed and gathered, they are then secretly rewritten as applications for proxy votes, naming party activists or their friends and relatives as the proxies. These people, unknown to the voter, then cast the vote for the party of their choice. This trick relies on elderly care home residents typically being absent-minded, or suffering from dementia. In the United Kingdom, this is known as 'granny farming' and has been restricted in recent years by a change in the law which prevents a single voter acting as a proxy for more than two non-family members therefore requiring more people to be involved in any fraud.Destruction or invalidation of ballots[edit]
One of the simplest methods of electoral fraud is to simply destroy ballots for the 'wrong' candidate or party. This is unusual in functioning democracies, as it is difficult to do without attracting attention. However in a very close election it might be possible to destroy a very small number of ballot papers without detection, thereby changing the overall result. Blatant destruction of ballot papers can render an election invalid and force it to be re-run. If a party can improve its vote on the re-run election, it can benefit from such destruction as long as it is not linked to it.A more subtle, and easily achieved, method is to make it appear that the voter has spoiled his or her ballot, thus rendering it invalid. Typically this would be done by adding another mark to the paper, making it appear that the voter has voted for more candidates than they were entitled to. It would be difficult to do this to a large number of papers without detection, but in a close election may prove decisive.Tampering with electronic voting machines[edit]
All voting systems face threats of some form of electoral fraud. The types of threats that affect voting machines can vary from other forms of voting systems, some threats may be prevented and others introduced.[37]Some forms of electoral fraud specific to electronic voting machines are listed below. Recent research at Argonne National Laboratories demonstrates that if a malicious actor is able to gain physical access to a voting machine, it can be a simple process to manipulate certain electronic voting machines, such as the Diebold Accuvote TS, by inserting inexpensive, readily available electronic components inside the machine.[38][39]- Tampering with the software of a voting machine to add malicious code altering vote totals or favor any candidate.
- Multiple groups have demonstrated this possibility.[40][41][42]
- Private companies manufacture these machines. Many companies will not allow public access or review of the machines source code, claiming fear of exposing trade secrets.[43]
- Tampering with the hardware of the voting machine to alter vote totals or favor any candidate.[41]
- Some of these machines require a smartcard to activate the machine and vote. However, a fraudulent smart card could attempt to gain access to vote multiple times.[44]
- Abusing the administrative access to the machine by election officials might also allow individuals to vote multiple times.
- Election results that are sent directly over the internet from a county count center to the state count center can be vulnerable to a man-in-the-middle attack, where they are diverted to an intermediate web site where the man in the middle flips the votes in favor of a certain candidate and then immediately forwards them on to the state count center. All votes sent over the internet violate chain of custody and hence should be avoided by driving or flying memory cards in locked metal containers from county count centers to the state count center. For purposes of getting quick preliminary statewide results on election night, encrypted votes can be sent over the internet, but final official results should be tabulated the next day only after the actual memory cards arrive in secure metal containers and are counted.[45]
Voter impersonation[edit]
Main article: Voter impersonationSome commentators, such as former Federal Election Commission member Hans von Spakovsky, have claimed that voter impersonation fraud, in which one person votes by impersonating another, eligible voter, is widespread, a claim that others, such as Professor Larry Sabato, dismiss as "relatively rare".[46]Vote fraud in legislature[edit]
Vote fraud can also take place in legislatures. Some of the forms used in national elections can also be used in parliaments, particularly intimidation and vote-buying. Because of the much smaller number of voters, however, election fraud in legislatures is qualitatively different in many ways. Fewer people are needed to 'swing' the election, and therefore specific people can be targeted in ways impractical on a larger scale. For example, Adolf Hitler achieved his dictatorial powers due to the Enabling Act of 1933, and achieved the necessary two-thirds majority to pass the Act by arresting members of the opposition. Later, the Reichstag was packed with Nazi party members who voted for the Act's renewal.In many legislatures, voting is public, in contrast to the secret ballot used in most modern public elections. This may make their elections more vulnerable to some forms of fraud, since a politician can be pressured by others who will know how he or she has voted. However, it may also protect against bribery and blackmail since the public and media will be aware if a politician votes in an unexpected way. Since voters and parties are entitled to pressure politicians to vote a particular way, the line between legitimate and fraudulent pressure is not always clear.As in public elections, proxy votes are particularly prone to fraud. In some systems, parties may vote on behalf of any member who is not present in parliament. This protects those people from missing out on voting if they are prevented from attending parliament, but also allows their party to prevent them from voting against its wishes. In some legislatures, proxy voting is not allowed, but politicians may rig voting buttons or otherwise illegally cast 'ghost votes' while absent.[47]Prevention[edit]
The two main strategies for the prevention of electoral fraud in society are: 1) deterrence through consistent and effective prosecution; 2) Cultivation of mores that discourage corruption. The two main fraud prevention tactics, ironically, can be summarized as secrecy and openness. The secret ballot prevents many kinds of intimidation and vote selling, while transparency at all other levels of the electoral process prevents and detects most interference.Mores[edit]
The patterns of conventional behavior in a society or mores are an effective means for preventing electoral fraud and corruption in general. A good example is Sweden, where the culture has a strong tendency toward positive values,[neutrality is disputed] resulting in a low incidence of political corruption.[48] Until recently Canada had a similar reputation, but the In and Out scandal of 2008 and the Robocall scandal of 2011 has tarnished Canada's electoral integrity.An advantage of cultivating positive mores as a prevention strategy is that it is effective across all electoral systems and devices. A disadvantage is that it makes other prevention and detection efforts more difficult to implement because members of society generally have more trust and less of a sense for fraudulent methods.Secret ballot[edit]
Main article: Secret ballotThe secret ballot, in which only the voter knows how individuals have voted, is a crucial part of ensuring free and fair elections through preventing voter intimidation or retribution. Although it was sometimes practiced in ancient Greece and was a part of the French Constitution of 1795, it only became common in the nineteenth century. Secret balloting appears to have been first implemented in the former British colony—now an Australian state—of Tasmania on 7 February 1856. By the turn of the century the practice had spread to most Western democracies. Before this, it was common for candidates to intimidate or bribe voters, as they would always know who had voted which way.Transparency[edit]
Most methods of preventing electoral fraud involve making the election process completely transparent to all voters, from nomination of candidates through casting of the votes and tabulation.[49] A key feature in ensuring the integrity of any part of the electoral process is a strict chain of custody.To prevent fraud in central tabulation, there has to be a public list of the results from every single polling place. This is the only way for voters to prove that the results they witnessed in their election office are correctly incorporated into the totals.End-to-end auditable voting systems provide voters with a receipt to allow them to verify their vote was cast correctly, and an audit mechanism to verify that the results were tabulated correctly and all votes were cast by valid voters. However, the ballot receipt does not permit voters to prove to others how they voted, since this would open the door towards forced voting and blackmail. End-to-end systems include Punchscan and Scantegrity, the latter being an add-on to optical scan systems instead of a replacement.In many cases, election observers are used to help prevent fraud and assure voters that the election is fair. International observers (bilateral and multilateral) may be invited to observe the elections (examples include election observation by the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE), European Union election observation missions, observation missions of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), as well as international observation organized by NGOs, such as CIS-EMO, European Network of Election Monitoring Organizations (ENEMO), etc.). Some countries also invite foreign observers (i.e. bi-lateral observation, as opposed to multi-lateral observation by international observers).In addition, national legislatures of countries often permit domestic observation. Domestic election observers can be either partisan (i.e. representing interests of one or a group of election contestants) or non-partisan (usually done by civil society groups). Legislations of different countries permit various forms and extents of international and domestic election observation.Election observation is also prescribed by various international legal instruments. For example, paragraph 8 of the 1990 Copenhagen Document states that "The [OSCE] participating States consider that the presence of observers, both foreign and domestic, can enhance the electoral process for States in which elections are taking place. They therefore invite observers from any other CSCE participating States and any appropriate private institutions and organizations who may wish to do so to observe the course of their national election proceedings, to the extent permitted by law. They will also endeavor to facilitate similar access for election proceedings held below the national level. Such observers will undertake not to interfere in the electoral proceedings".Critics note that observers cannot spot certain types of election fraud like targeted voter suppression or manipulated software of voting machines.Statistical indicators[edit]
Various forms of statistics can be indicators for election fraud e.g. exit polls which diverge from the final results. Well-conducted exit polls serve as a deterrent to electoral fraud. However, exit polls are still notoriously imprecise. For instance, in the Czech Republic, some voters are afraid or ashamed to admit that they voted for the Communist Party (exit polls in 2002 gave the Communist party 2-3 percentage points less than the actual result).When elections are marred by ballot-box stuffing (e.g., the Armenian presidential elections of 1996 and 1998), the affected polling stations will show abnormally high voter turnouts with results favoring a single candidate. By graphing the number of votes against turnout percentage (i.e., aggregating polling stations results within a given turnout range), the divergence from bell-curve distribution gives an indication of the extent of the fraud. Stuffing votes in favor of a single candidate affects votes vs. turnout distributions for that candidate and other candidates differently; this difference could be used to quantitatively assess the amount of votes stuffed. Also, these distributions sometimes exhibit spikes at round-number turnout percentage values.[50][51][52] High numbers of invalid ballots, overvoting or undervoting are other potential indicators.Prosecution[edit]
In countries with strong laws and effective legal systems, lawsuits can be brought against those who have allegedly committed fraud; but the deterrent of legal prosecution would not be enough. Although the penalties for getting caught may be severe, the rewards for succeeding are likely to be worth the risk. The rewards range from benefits in contracting to total control of a country.In Germany there are currently calls for reform of these laws because lawsuits can be and are usually prolonged by the newly elected Bundestag.In the United States one such case was in Pennsylvania where Bill Stinson won an election based on fraudulent absentee ballots. The courts ruled that his opponent be seated in the state Senate as a result.[53]In the Philippines, former President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo was arrested in 2011 following the filing of criminal charges against her for electoral sabotage, in connection with thePhilippine general election, 2007. She was accused of conspiring with election officials to ensure the victory of her party's senatorial slate in the province of Maguindanao, through the tampering of election returns.[54]Voting machine integrity[edit]
Further information: Certification of voting machinesOne method for verifying voting machine accuracy is Parallel Testing, the process of using an independent set of results compared against the original machine results. Parallel testing can be done prior to or during an election. During an election, one form of parallel testing is the VVPAT. This method is only effective if statistically significant numbers of voters verify that their intended vote matches both the electronic and paper votes.On election day, a statistically significant number of voting machines can be randomly selected from polling locations and used for testing. This can be used to detect potential fraud or malfunction unless manipulated software would only start to cheat after a certain event like a voter pressing a special key combination (Or a machine might cheat only if someone doesn't perform the combination, which requires more insider access but fewer voters).Another form of testing is Logic & Accuracy Testing (L&A), pre-election testing of voting machines using test votes to determine if they are functioning correctly.Another method to insure the integrity of electronic voting machines is independent software verification and certification.[49] Once software is certified, code signing can insure the software certified is identical to that which is used on election day. Some argue certification would be more effective if voting machine software was publicly available or open source.Certification and testing processes conducted publicly and with oversight from interested parties can promote transparency in the election process. The integrity of those conducting testing can be questioned.Testing and certification can prevent voting machines from being a black box where voters can not be sure that counting inside is done as intended.[49]One method that people have argued would help prevent these machines from being tampered with would be for the companies that produce the machines to share the source code, which displays and captures the ballots, with computer scientists. This would allow external sources to make sure that the machines are working correctly.[43]Notable legislation[edit]
Help America Vote Act[edit]
Main article: Help America Vote ActThe Help America Vote Act (Pub.L. 107–252), or HAVA, is a United States federal law enacted on October 29, 2002.[55] It was drafted (at least in part) in reaction to the controversy surrounding the 2000 U.S. presidential election, the goals of HAVA are:[56] to replace punchcard and lever-based voting systems; create the Election Assistance Commission to assist in the administration of Federal elections; and establish minimum election administration standards.Civil Rights Act of 1964[edit]
Main article: Civil Rights Act of 1964The Civil Rights Act of 1964 (Pub.L. 88–352, 78 Stat. 241, enacted July 2, 1964) was a landmark piece of legislation in the United States[57] that outlawed major forms of discrimination against African Americans and women, including racial segregation and unequal application of voter registration requirements.List of controversial and electorally dubious elections[edit]
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Differential (mechanical device)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (July 2015) A differential is a particular type of simple planetary gear train that has the property that the angular velocity of its carrier is the average of the angular velocities of its sun and annular gears. This is accomplished by packaging the gear train so it has a fixed carrier train ratio R = -1, which means the gears corresponding to the sun and annular gears are the same size. This can be done by engaging the planet gears of two identical and coaxial epicyclic gear trains to form a spur gear differential. Another approach is to use bevel gears for the sun and annular gears and a bevel gear as the planet, which is known as a bevel gear differential.Contents
[hide]Overview[edit]
ZF Differential. The drive shaft enters from the front and the driven axles run left and right.
Car differential of a Škoda 422In automobiles and other wheeled vehicles, the differential allows the outer drive wheel to rotate faster than the inner drive wheel during a turn. This is necessary when the vehicle turns, making the wheel that is traveling around the outside of the turning curve roll farther and faster than the other. The average of the rotational speed of the two driving wheels equals the input rotational speed of the drive shaft. An increase in the speed of one wheel is balanced by a decrease in the speed of the other.When used in this way, a differential couples the input shaft (or prop shaft) to the Pinion, which in turn runs on the Crown wheel of the differential. This also works as reduction gearing to give the ratio. On rear wheel drive vehicles the differential may connect to half-shafts inside an axle casing or drive shafts that connect to the rear driving wheels. Front wheel drive vehicles tend to have the pinion on the end of the main-shaft of the gearbox and the differential is enclosed in the same casing as the gearbox. They have individual drive-shafts to each wheel. Older 4x4 vehicles and tractors usually have a solid front axle, the modern way can be a separate differential and drive shaft arrangement for the front.A differential consists of one input, the drive shaft, and two outputs which are the two drive wheels, however the rotation of the drive wheels are coupled by their connection to the roadway. Under normal conditions, with small tyre slip, the ratio of the speeds of the two driving wheels is defined by the ratio of the radii of the paths around which the two wheels are rolling, which in turn is determined by the track-width of the vehicle (the distance between the driving wheels) and the radius of the turn.Non-automotive uses of differentials include performing analog arithmetic. Two of the differential's three shafts are made to rotate through angles that represent (are proportional to) two numbers, and the angle of the third shaft's rotation represents the sum or difference of the two input numbers. The earliest known use of a differential gear is in the Antikythera Mechanism, circa 80 BCE, which used a differential gear to control a small sphere representing the moon from the difference between the sun and moon position pointers. The ball was painted black and white in hemispheres, and graphically showed the phase of the moon at a particular point in time.[1] See also the Chinese South-pointing chariot. An equation clock that used a differential for addition was made in 1720. In the 20th Century, large assemblies of many differentials were used as analog computers, calculating, for example, the direction in which a gun should be aimed. However, the development of electronic digital computers has made these uses of differentials obsolete. Military uses may still exist. SeeElectromagnetic pulse. Practically all the differentials that are now made are used in automobiles and similar vehicles.History[edit]
There are many claims to the invention of the differential gear but it is possible that it was known, at least in some places, in ancient times. Some historical milestones of the differential include:- 100 BC–70 BC: The Antikythera mechanism has been dated to this period. It was discovered in 1902 on a shipwreck by sponge divers, and modern research suggests that it used a differential gear to determine the angle between the ecliptic positions of the sun and moon, and thus the phase of the moon.[1][2]
- 30 BC–20 BC: Differential gear systems possibly used in China
- 227–239 AD: Despite doubts from fellow ministers at court, Ma Jun from the Kingdom of Wei in China invents the first historically verifiable south-pointing chariot, which provided cardinal direction as a non-magnetic, mechanized compass. Some such chariots may have used differential gears.
- 658, 666 AD: two Chinese Buddhist monks and engineers create south-pointing chariots for Emperor Tenji of Japan.
- 1027, 1107 AD: Documented Chinese reproductions of the south-pointing chariot by Yan Su and then Wu Deren, which described in detail the mechanical functions and gear ratios of the device much more so than earlier Chinese records.
- 1720: Joseph Williamson uses a differential gear in a clock.
- 1810: Rudolph Ackermann of Germany invents a four-wheel steering system for carriages, which some later writers mistakenly report as a differential.
- 1827: modern automotive differential patented by watchmaker Onésiphore Pecqueur (1792–1852) of the Conservatoire des Arts et Métiers inFrance for use on a steam cart. (Sources: Britannica Online and[3])
- 1832: Richard Roberts of England patents 'gear of compensation', a differential for road locomotives.
- 1874: Aveling and Porter of Rochester, Kent list a crane locomotive in their catalogue fitted with their patent differential gear on the rear axle.[4]
- 1876: James Starley of Coventry invents chain-drive differential for use on bicycles; invention later used on automobiles by Karl Benz.
- 1897: first use of differential on an Australian steam car by David Shearer.
- 1958: Vernon Gleasman patents the Torsen dual-drive differential, a type of limited slip differential that relies solely on the action of gearing instead of a combination of clutches and gears.
Epicyclic differential[edit]
Epicyclic gearing is used here to apportion torque asymmetrically. The input shaft is the green hollow one, the yellow is the low torque output, and the pink is the high torque output. The force applied in the yellow and the pink gears is the same, but since the arm of the pink one is 2× to 3× as big, the torque will be 2× to 3× as high.An epicyclic differential can use epicyclic gearing to split and apportion torque asymmetrically between the front and rear axles. An epicyclic differential is at the heart of the Toyota Prius automotive drive train, where it interconnects the engine, motor-generators, and the drive wheels (which have a second differential for splitting torque as usual). It has the advantage of being relatively compact along the length of its axis (that is, the sun gear shaft).Epicyclic gears are also called planetary gears because the axes of the planet gears revolve around the common axis of the sun and ring gears that they mesh with and roll between. In the image, the yellow shaft carries the sun gear which is almost hidden. The blue gears are called planet gears and the pink gear is the ring gear or annulus.Ring gears are also used in starter motors.Spur-gear differential[edit]
This is another type of differential that was used in some early automobiles, more recently the Oldsmobile Toronado, as well as other non-automotive applications. It consists of spur gears only.[citation needed]A spur-gear differential has two equal-sized spur gears, one for each half-shaft, with a space between them. Instead of the Bevel gear, also known as a miter gear, assembly (the "spider") at the centre of the differential, there is a rotating carrier on the same axis as the two shafts. Torque from a prime mover ortransmission, such as the drive shaft of a car, rotates this carrier.Mounted in this carrier are one or more pairs of identical pinions, generally longer than their diameters, and typically smaller than the spur gears on the individual half-shafts. Each pinion pair rotates freely on pins supported by the carrier. Furthermore, the pinion pairs are displaced axially, such that they mesh only for the part of their length between the two spur gears, and rotate in opposite directions. The remaining length of a given pinion meshes with the nearer spur gear on its axle. Therefore, each pinion couples that spur gear to the other pinion, and in turn, the other spur gear, so that when the drive shaft rotates the carrier, its relationship to the gears for the individual wheel axles is the same as that in a bevel-gear differential.A spur gear differential is constructed from two identical coaxial epicyclic gear trains assembled with a single carrier such that their planet gears are engaged. This forms aplanetary gear train with a fixed carrier train ratio R = -1.In this case, the fundamental formula for the planetary gear train yields,orThus, the angular velocity of the carrier of a spur gear differential is the average of the angular velocities of the sun and annular gears.[5]In discussing the spur gear differential, the use of the term annular gear is a convenient way to distinguish the sun gears of the two epicyclic gear trains. The second sun gear serves the same purpose as the annular gear of a simple planetary gear train, but clearly does not have the internal gear mate that is typical of an annular gear.Non-automotive applications[edit]
Differential used to control the take-up reel of a paper tape reader made byTally circa 1962. The bevel gears spin freely on their shafts, unless a brake shoe stops the left gear. This causes the planet gear to drive the output shaft at half the speed of the driven gear on the right.
Planetary differential used to drive a chart recorder circa 1961. The motors drive the sun and annular gears, while the output is taken from the planet gear carrier. This gives 3 different speeds depending on which motors are on.Chinese south-pointing chariots may also have been very early applications of differentials. The chariot had a pointer which constantly pointed to the south, no matter how the chariot turned as it travelled. It could therefore be used as a type of compass. It is widely thought that a differential mechanism responded to any difference between the speeds of rotation of the two wheels of the chariot, and turned the pointer appropriately. However, the mechanism was not precise enough, and, after a few miles of travel, the dial could have very well been pointing in the complete opposite direction.The earliest definitely verified use of a differential was in a clock made by Joseph Williamson in 1720. It employed a differential to add theEquation of Time to local mean time, as determined by the clock mechanism, to produce solar time, which would have been the same as the reading of a sundial. During the 18th Century, sundials were considered to show the "correct" time, so an ordinary clock would frequently have to be readjusted, even if it worked perfectly, because of seasonal variations in the Equation of Time. Williamson's and other equation clocks showed sundial time without needing readjustment. Nowadays, we consider clocks to be "correct" and sundials usually incorrect, so many sundials carry instructions about how to use their readings to obtain clock time.In the first half of the twentieth century, mechanical analog computers, called differential analyzers, were constructed that used differential gear trains to perform addition and subtraction. The U.S. Navy Mk.1 gun fire control computer used about 160 differentials of the bevel-gear type.A differential gear train can be used to allow a difference between two input axles. Mills often used such gears to apply torque in the required axis. Differentials are also used in this way in watchmaking to link two separate regulating systems with the aim of averaging out errors. Greubel Forsey use a differential to link two double tourbillon systems in their Quadruple Differential Tourbillon.Application to vehicles[edit]
A vehicle with two drive wheels has the problem that when it turns a corner the drive wheels must rotate at different speeds to maintain traction. The automotive differential is designed to drive a pair of wheels while allowing them to rotate at different speeds. In vehicles without a differential, such as karts, both driving wheels are forced to rotate at the same speed, usually on a common axle driven by a simple chain-drive mechanism.When cornering the inner wheel travels a shorter distance than the outer wheel, so without a differential either the inner wheel rotates too fast or the outer wheel drags, which results in difficult and unpredictable handling, damage to tires and roads, and strain on (or possible failure of) the entire drivetrain.In rear-wheel drive automobiles the central drive shaft (or prop shaft) engages the differential through a hypoid gear(crown-wheel and pinion) the crown-wheel is mounted on the carrier of the planetary chain that forms the differential. This hypoid gear is a bevel gear that changes the direction of the drive rotation.Functional description[edit]
Input torque is applied to the ring gear (blue), which turns the entire carrier (blue). The carrier is connected to both sun gears (red and yellow) only through the planet gear (green). Torque is transmitted to the sun gears through the planet gear. The planet gear revolves around the axis of the carrier, driving the sun gears. If the resistance at both wheels is equal, the planet gear revolves without spinning about its own axis, and both wheels turn at the same rate.The following description of a differential applies to a "traditional" rear-wheel-drive car or truck with an "open" or limited slip differential combined with a reduction gearset using bevel gears (these are not strictly necessary – see spur-gear differential):Thus, for example, if the car is making a turn to the right, the main crown wheel may make 10 full rotations. During that time, the left wheel will make more rotations because it has further to travel, and the right wheel will make fewer rotations as it has less distance to travel. The sun gears (which drive the axle half-shafts) will rotate in opposite directions relative to the ring gear by, say, 2 full turns each (4 full turns relative to each other), resulting in the left wheel making 12 rotations, and the right wheel making 8 rotations.The rotation of the crown wheel gear is always the average of the rotations of the side sun gears. This is why, if the driven roadwheels are lifted clear of the ground with the engine off, and the drive shaft is held (say leaving the transmission 'in gear', preventing the ring gear from turning inside the differential), manually rotating one driven roadwheel causes the opposite roadwheel to rotate in the opposite direction by the same amount.When the vehicle is traveling in a straight line, there will be no differential movement of the planetary system of gears other than the minute movements necessary to compensate for slight differences in wheel diameter, undulations in the road (which make for a longer or shorter wheel path), etc.Loss of traction[edit]
One undesirable side effect of a conventional differential is that it can limit traction under less than ideal conditions. The amount of traction required to propel the vehicle at any given moment depends on the load at that instant—how heavy the vehicle is, how much drag and friction there is, the gradient of the road, the vehicle's momentum, and so on.The torque applied to each driving wheel is a result of the engine, transmission and drive axles applying a twisting force against the resistance of the traction at that roadwheel. In lower gears and thus at lower speeds, and unless the load is exceptionally high, the drivetrain can supply as much torque as necessary, so the limiting factor becomes the traction under each wheel. It is therefore convenient to define traction as the amount of torque that can be generated between the tire and the road surface, before the wheel starts to slip. If the torque applied to one of the drive wheels exceeds the threshold of traction, then that wheel will spin, and thus only provide torque at each other driven wheel limited by the sliding friction at the slipping wheel. The reduced net traction may still be enough to propel the vehicle.A conventional "open" (non-locked or otherwise traction-aided) differential always supplies close to equal (because of limited internal friction) torque to each side. To illustrate how this can limit torque applied to the driving wheels, imagine a simple rear-wheel drive vehicle, with one rear roadwheel on asphalt with good grip, and the other on a patch of slippery ice. It takes very little torque to spin the side on slippery ice, and because a differential splits torque equally to each side, the torque that is applied to the side that is on asphalt is limited to this amount.[6][7]Based on the load, gradient, et cetera, the vehicle requires a certain amount of torque applied to the drive wheels to move forward. Since an open differential limits total torque applied to both drive wheels to the amount used by the lower traction wheel multiplied by a factor of 2, when one wheel is on a slippery surface, the total torque applied to the driving wheels may be lower than the minimum torque required for vehicle propulsion.[8]A proposed way to distribute the power to the wheels, is to use the concept of gearless differential, of which a review has been reported by Provatidis,[9] but the various configurations seem to correspond either to the "sliding pins and cams" type, such as the ZF B-70 available on early VWs, or are a variation of the ball differential.Many newer vehicles feature traction control, which partially mitigates the poor traction characteristics of an open differential by using theanti-lock braking system to limit or stop the slippage of the low traction wheel, increasing the torque that can be applied to both wheels. While not as effective in propelling a vehicle under poor traction conditions as a traction-aided differential, it is better than a simple mechanical open differential with no electronic traction assistance.
A cutaway drawing of a car's rearaxle, showing the crown wheel andpinion of the final drive, and the smaller differential gearsActive differentials[edit]
A relatively new technology is the electronically controlled 'active differential'. An electronic control unit (ECU) uses inputs from multiple sensors, including yaw rate, steering input angle, and lateral acceleration—and adjusts the distribution of torque to compensate for undesirable handling behaviours like understeer. Active differentials used to play a large role in the World Rally Championship, but in the 2006 season the FIA has limited the use of active differentials only to those drivers who have not competed in the World Rally Championship in the last five years.Fully integrated active differentials are used on the Ferrari F430, Mitsubishi Lancer Evolution, and on the rear wheels in the Acura RL. A version manufactured by ZF is also being offered on the B8 chassis Audi S4 and Audi A4.[10] The Volkswagen Golf GTI Mk7 in Performance trim also has an electronically controlled front-axle transverse differential lock, also known as VAQ.[11]The second constraint of the differential is passive—it is actuated by the friction kinematics chain through the ground. The difference in torque on the roadwheels and tires (caused by turns or bumpy ground) drives the second degree of freedom, (overcoming the torque of inner friction) to equalise the driving torque on the tires. The sensitivity of the differential depends on the inner friction through the second degree of freedom. All of the differentials (so called "active" and "passive") use clutches and brakes for restricting the second degree of freedom, so all suffer from the same disadvantage—decreased sensitivity to a dynamically changing environment. The sensitivity of the ECU controlled differential is also limited by the time delay caused by sensors and the response time of the actuators.Automobiles without differentials[edit]
Although most automobiles in the developed world use differentials there are a few that do not. Several different types exist:- Race cars and trucks in certain classes. Drag racing is done in a straight line (and often on a prepared surface), which obviates the need for a differential. A spool is used to make a solid connection between both drive wheels, which is simpler and less likely to break under very heavy acceleration. Racing on dirt or mud tracks also allows the use of spools, because the loose surface gives way while cornering. NASCAR mandates the use of spools in their cars, which does cause axle wind-up, and degrades handling in turns. Other forms of racing without differentials includes tractor pulling, mud bogging and other 4x4 motorsports where differential action is not needed.
- Vehicles with a single driving wheel. Besides motorcycles, which are generally not classified as automobiles, this group includes most three-wheeled cars. These were quite common in Europe in the mid-20th Century, but have now become rare there. They are still common in some areas of the developing world, such as India. Some early four-wheeled cars also had only one driving wheel to avoid the need for a differential. However, this arrangement led to many problems. The system was unbalanced, the driving wheel would easily spin, etc.. Because of these problems, few such vehicles were made.
- Vehicles using two freewheels. A freewheel, as used on a pedal bicycle for example, allows a road wheel to rotate faster than the mechanism that drives it, allowing a cyclist to stop pedalling while going downhill. Some early automobiles had the engine driving two freewheels, one for each driving road wheel. When the vehicle turned, the engine would continue to drive the wheel on the inside of the curve, but the wheel on the outside was permitted to rotate faster by its freewheel. Thus, while turning, the vehicle had only one driving wheel. Driving in reverse is also impossible as is engine braking due to the freewheels.
- Vehicles with continuously variable transmissions, such as the DAF Daffodil. The Daffodil, and other similar vehicles which were made until the 1970s by the Dutch company DAF, had a type of transmission that used an arrangement of belts and pulleys to provide an infinite number of gear ratios. The engine drove two separate transmissions which ran the two driving wheels. When the vehicle turned, the two wheels could rotate at different speeds, making the two transmissions shift to different gear ratios, thus functionally substituting for a differential. The slower moving wheel received more driving torque than the faster one, so the system had limited-slip characteristics. The duplication also provided redundancy. If one belt broke, the vehicle could still be driven.
- Light vehicles with closely spaced rear wheels, such as the Isetta and Opperman Unicar, or very low mass vehicles.
- Vehicles with separate motors for the driving wheels. Electric cars can have a separate motor for each driving wheel, eliminating the need for a differential, but usually with some form of gearing at each motor to get the large wheel torques necessary. A multi-motor electric vehicle such as the Dual Motor Tesla Model S can electronically control the power distribution between the motors on a millisecond scale, in this case acting as a centre differential where open differentials are still employed left-to-right.[12]
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Posted:2016-02-03 06:26:25 UTC-08:00
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Posted:2016-02-03 05:55:58 UTC-08:00
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Posted:2016-02-03 05:13:02 UTC-08:00
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United States nationality law
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaThis article is about laws regarding U.S. citizenship. For citizenship in general, see Citizenship in the United States.
It has been suggested that Citizenship in the United States be merged into this article. (Discuss) Proposed since June 2015. 
Physicist Albert Einstein receiving his certificate of American citizenship from Judge Phillip Forman in 1940.[1]Article I, section 8, clause 4 of the United States Constitution expressly gives the United States Congress the power to establish a uniform rule of naturalization.[2] The Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952 sets forth the legal requirements for the acquisition of, and divestiture from, American nationality. The requirements have become more explicit since the ratification of the Fourteenth Amendmentto the Constitution, with the most recent changes to statutory law having been made by the United States Congress in 2001.Contents
[hide]- 1Rights and responsibilities of U.S. citizens
- 2Acquisition of citizenship
- 3Dual citizenship
- 4Visa requirements
- 5Nationals
- 6Citizenship at birth on the U.S. territories and former U.S. territories
- 7Loss of citizenship
- 8Emigration from United States
- 9Notes and references
- 10See also
- 11Further reading
- 12External links
Rights and responsibilities of U.S. citizens[edit]
Rights of citizens[edit]
See also: Voting rights in the United StatesAdult citizens of the United States who are residents of one of the 50 states or the District of Columbia (Washington, D.C.) have the right to participate in the political system of the United States, as well as their state and local governments (with most states having restrictions on voting by persons convicted of felonies, and a federal constitutional prohibitionon naturalized persons running for President and Vice President of the United States), to be represented and protected abroad by the United States (through U.S. embassies andconsulates), and to live in the United States and certain territories without any immigration requirements. Felons can vote in over 40 states, and in at least 2 while incarcerated. Felons can also serve jury duty if approved.[citation needed]Responsibilities of citizens[edit]
Some[3] U.S. citizens have the obligation to serve in a jury, if selected and legally qualified. Citizens are also required (under the provisions of the Internal Revenue Code) to paytaxes on their total income from all sources worldwide, including income earned abroad while living abroad. Under certain circumstances, however, U.S. citizens living and working abroad may be able to reduce or eliminate their U.S. federal income tax via the Foreign Earned Income Exclusion or the Foreign Tax Credit.[4] U.S. taxes payable may be alternatively reduced by credits for foreign income taxes regardless of the length of stay abroad. The United States Government also insists that U.S. citizens travel into and out of the United States on a U.S. passport, regardless of any other nationality they may possess.[5]Male U.S. citizens (including those living permanently abroad and those with multiple citizenship) from 18–25 years of age are required to register with the Selective Service System at age 18 for possible conscription into the armed forces. Although no one has been drafted in the U.S. since 1973, draft registration continues in the case of a possible reinstatement on some future date.[6]In the Oath of Citizenship, immigrants becoming naturalized U.S. citizens swear that when required by law they will bear arms on behalf of the United States, will perform noncombatant service in the U.S. Armed Forces, and will perform work of national importance under civilian direction. In some cases, the USCIS allows the oath to be taken without the clauses regarding the first two of these three sworn commitments.[7]Acquisition of citizenship[edit]
There are various ways a person can acquire United States citizenship, either at birth or later on in life.Birth within the United States[edit]
Main articles: Birthright citizenship in the United States and Jus soliSection 1 of the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution provides that "All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside."In the case of United States v. Wong Kim Ark, 169 U.S. 649 (1898), the Supreme Court ruled that a person becomes a citizen of the United States at the time of birth, by virtue of the first clause of the 14th Amendment, if that person:- Is born in the United States
- Has parents that are subjects of a foreign power, but not in any diplomatic or official capacity of that foreign power
- Has parents that have permanent domicile and residence in the United States
- Has parents that are in the United States for business
The Supreme Court has never explicitly ruled on whether children born in the United States to illegal immigrant parents are entitled to birthright citizenship via the 14th Amendment,[8] but it has generally been assumed that they are.[9]As of 2015, the "United States" includes all inhabited territories except American Samoa and Swains Island. (See § Citizenship at birth on the U.S. territories and former U.S. territories.)Through birth abroad to United States citizens[edit]
See also: jus sanguinisBirth abroad to two United States citizens[edit]
A child is automatically granted citizenship if:- Both parents were U.S. citizens at the time of the child's birth;
- The parents are married; and
- At least one parent lived in the United States prior to the child's birth. INA 301(c) and INA 301(a)(3) state, "and one of whom has had a residence."
The FAM (Foreign Affairs Manual) states "no amount of time specified."A person's record of birth abroad, if registered with a U.S. consulate or embassy, is proof of citizenship. They may also apply for a passport or a Certificate of Citizenship as proof of citizenship.Birth abroad to one United States citizen[edit]
A person born on or after November 14, 1986, is a U.S. citizen if all of the following are true:[10]- The person's parents were married at time of birth
- One of the person's parents was a U.S. citizen when the person in question was born
- The citizen parent lived at least five years in the United States before the child's birth
- A minimum of two of these five years in the United States were after the citizen parent's 14th birthday.
INA 301(g) makes additional provisions to satisfy the physical-presence requirements for periods citizens spent abroad in "honorable service in the Armed Forces of the United States, or periods of employment with the United States Government or with an international organization." Additionally citizens, who spent time living abroad as the "dependentunmarried son or daughter and a member of the household of a person" in any of the previously mentioned organizations can also be counted.A person's record of birth abroad, if registered with a U.S. consulate or embassy, is proof of citizenship. Such a person may also apply for a passport or a Certificate of Citizenship to have a record of citizenship. Such documentation is often useful to prove citizenship in lieu of the availability of an American birth certificate.Different rules apply for persons born abroad to one U.S. citizen before November 14, 1986. United States law on this subject changed multiple times throughout the twentieth century, and the law is applicable as it existed at the time of the individual's birth.For persons born between December 24, 1952 and November 14, 1986, a person is a U.S. citizen if all of the following are true:[10]- The person's parents were married at the time of birth
- One of the person's parents was a U.S. citizen when the person was born
- The citizen parent lived at least ten years in the United States before the child's birth;
- A minimum of 5 of these 10 years in the United States were after the citizen parent's 14th birthday.
For persons born out of wedlock, the person is a U.S. citizen if all the following apply:- the mother was a U.S. citizen at the time of the person's birth and
- the mother was physically present in the United States or one of its outlying possessions for a continuous period of one year prior to the person's birth.[11] (See link for those born to a U.S. father out of wedlock)[10]
Adoption[edit]
The Child Citizenship Act of 2000 (CCA), which went into effect on February 27, 2001, amends the Immigration and Nationality Act (INA) to provide U.S. citizenship to certain foreign-born children—including adopted children—of U.S. citizens.[12]Naturalization[edit]
A person who was not born a U.S. citizen may acquire U.S. citizenship through a process known as naturalization.Eligibility for naturalization[edit]
To become a naturalized United States citizen, one must be at least eighteen years of age at the time of filing, a legal permanent resident(or non-citizen national) of the United States, and have had a status of a legal permanent resident in the United States for five years before they apply (this requirement is reduced to three years if they (a) acquired legal permanent resident status, (b) have been married to and living with a citizen for the past three years and (c) the spouse has been a U.S. citizen for at least three years prior to the applicant applying for naturalization.) They must have been physically present for at least 30 months of 60 months prior to the date of filing their application. Also during those 60 months if the legal permanent resident was outside of the U.S. for a continuous period of 6 months or more they are disqualified from naturalizing (certain exceptions apply for those continuous periods of six months to 1 year). They must be a "person of good moral character", and must pass a test on United States history and government.[13][14] Most applicants must also have a working knowledge of the English language.[13] There are exceptions, introduced in 1990, for long-resident older applicants and those with mental or physical disabilities.[15][16]Some exemptions from permanent residency exist for certain qualifying naturalization applicants. For example, an undocumented alien who served in the US military during a designated period of hostility may naturalize without having first been a permanent resident.[17] An alien who successfully completes the MAVNI program may naturalize in 10 weeks without first having been a permanent resident.[18] Similarly, an alien who has made extraordinary contributions can be exempted from residency as well as the physical presence requirement and prohibitions for support of totalitarianism and or communism.[19]A non-citizen U.S. national (see below) is also eligible for naturalization after becoming a resident of any state.[13][20]Citizenship test[edit]
Applicants for citizenship are asked ten questions, and must answer at least six with the expected answers. U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services has published a list of 100 sample questions (with the answers that should be given when taking the test), from which the questions asked are always drawn. The full list of questions is in the document "A Guide to Naturalization", available for free from the USCIS.[21] The test examines the applicant's knowledge of American society and the English language. Sample questions and answers are published by the USCIS in English, Spanish, Chinese, Tagalog, Vietnamese and Azerbaijani.[22]Besides passing the citizenship test, citizenship applicants must also satisfy other specific requirements of naturalization to successfully obtain U.S. citizenship.[23]An applicant will also be required to submit to an in-person interview.Eligibility for public office[edit]
A person who becomes a U.S. citizen through naturalization is not considered a natural born citizen. Consequently, naturalized U.S. citizens are not eligible to become President of the United States or Vice President of the United States, which would ordinarily be the case as established by the Presidential Succession Act. For example, though theSecretary of Commerce and the Secretary of Labor are tenth and eleventh in the presidential line of succession, Elaine Chao and Carlos Gutierrez (respectively former U.S. Secretaries of Labor and Commerce under President George W. Bush) would have been unable to succeed to the presidency because they became U.S. citizens through naturalization. The highest-ranking naturalized citizens to have been excluded from the Presidential Line of Succession were Henry Kissinger and Madeleine Albright, each of whom would have been fourth in line as Secretary of State had they been natural born citizens.Whether this restriction applies to children born to non-U.S. citizens but adopted as minors by U.S. citizens is a matter of some debate, since the Child Citizenship Act of 2000 is ambiguous as to whether acquisition of citizenship by that route is to be regarded as naturalized or natural-born. Those who argue that the restriction does not apply point out that the child automatically becomes a citizen even though violating every single requirement of eligibility for naturalization, and thus the case falls closer to the situation of birth abroad to U.S. citizens than to naturalization.[citation needed]Some argue that the phrase "natural born citizen" describes a category of citizenship distinct from that described by the phrase "U.S. Citizen" in Article Two of the United States Constitution, and this was discussed during the constitutional convention of 1787.[24] While it is true that "natural born citizen" is not defined anywhere within the text of the Constitution and that the Constitution makes use of the phrase "citizen" and "natural born citizen", Supreme Court Decisions from United States v. Wong Kim Ark to the present have considered the distinction to be between natural-born and naturalized citizenship.In her 1988 article in the Yale Law Journal, Jill Pryor wrote, "It is well settled that 'native-born' citizens, those born in the United States, qualify as natural born. It is also clear that persons born abroad of alien parents, who later become citizens by naturalization, do not. But whether a person born abroad of American parents, or of one American and one alien parent, qualifies as natural born has never been resolved."[25]An April 2000 CRS report by the Congressional Research Service, asserts that most constitutional scholars interpret the phrase "natural born citizen" as including citizens born outside the United States to parents who are U.S. citizens under the "natural born" requirement.[26]Chester Arthur, born in the U.S. state of Vermont of an American mother and Irish father, was sworn in as President, but his status as a "natural-born citizen" was challenged on the grounds that he was allegedly born in Canada or Ireland. Presidential candidates George W. Romney (born in Mexico), Barry Goldwater and John McCain (born in U.S. territories), were never seriously challenged on the basis of their "natural born" citizenship, but no candidate falling under this classification has been elected President.Expeditious naturalization of children[edit]
Effective April 1, 1995, a child born outside the U.S. to a U.S. citizen parent, if not already a citizen by birth because the parent does not meet the residency requirement (see above), may qualify for expeditious naturalization based on the physical presence of the child's grandparent in the U.S. In general the grandparent should have spent five years in the U.S., at least two of which were after the age of 14.The process of naturalization, including the oath of allegiance, must be completed before the child's 18th birthday. It is not necessary for the child to be admitted to the U.S. as a lawful permanent resident.[27]Child Citizenship Act of 2000[edit]
Effective February 27, 2001, the Child Citizenship Act of 2000 provided that a non-U.S. citizen child (aged under 18) with a U.S. citizen parent, and in the custody of that parent while resident in the United States, automatically acquired U.S. citizenship. To be eligible, a child must meet the definition of "child" for naturalization purposes under immigration law, and must also meet the following requirements:- The child has at least one United States citizen parent (by birth or naturalization)
- The child is under 18 years of age
- The child is currently residing permanently in the United States in the legal and physical custody of the United States citizen parent
- The child has been admitted to the United States as a lawful permanent resident or has been adjusted to this status
- An adopted child must also meet the requirements applicable to the particular provision under which they qualified for admission as an adopted child under immigration law
Dual citizenship[edit]
Based on the U.S. Department of State regulation on dual citizenship (7 FAM 1162), the Supreme Court of the United States has stated that dual citizenship is a "status long recognized in the law" and that "a person may have and exercise rights of nationality in two countries and be subject to the responsibilities of both. The mere fact he asserts the rights of one citizenship does not, without more, mean that he renounces the other", Kawakita v. U.S., 343 U.S. 717 (1952). In Schneider v. Rusk, 377 U.S. 163 (1964), the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that a naturalized U.S. citizen has the right to return to his native country and to resume his former citizenship, and also to remain a U.S. citizen even if he never returns to the United States.The Immigration and Nationality Act (INA) neither defines dual citizenship nor takes a position for it or against it. There has been no prohibition against dual citizenship, but some provisions of the INA and earlier U.S. nationality laws were designed to reduce situations in which dual citizenship exists. Although naturalizing citizens are required to undertake an oath renouncing previous allegiances, the oath has never been enforced to require the actual termination of original citizenship.[28]Although the U.S. government does not endorse dual citizenship as a matter of policy, it recognizes the existence of dual citizenship and completely tolerates the maintenance of multiple citizenship by U.S. citizens. In the past, claims of other countries on dual-national U.S. citizens sometimes placed them in situations where their obligations to one country were in conflict with the laws of the other. However, as fewer countries require military service and most base other obligations (such as the payment of taxes) on residence and not citizenship, these conflicts have become less frequent.[29]A U.S. citizen may lose his or her dual citizenship by obtaining naturalization in a foreign state, by taking an oath or making an affirmation or other formal declaration of allegiance to a foreign state or political subdivision thereof, by serving in the armed forces of a foreign state, or by performing certain other acts, but only if the act was performed "voluntarily and with the intention to relinquish U.S. nationality".[30]One circumstance where dual citizenship may run counter to expectations of government agencies is in matters of security clearance. For example, any person granted a Yankee White vetting must be absolutely free of foreign influence, and for other security clearances one of the grounds that may result in a rejected application is an actual or potential conflict of national allegiances.Visa requirements[edit]
Main article: Visa requirements for United States citizens
Visa requirements for United States citizens
Countries and territories with visa-free or visa-on-arrival entries for holders of regular United States passportsVisa free (including tourist cards)Electronic authorization or online payment requiredVisa issued upon arrival or visa-free entry upon arrival with payment of reciprocity feeVisa required prior to arrivalVisa requirements for the United States citizens are administrative entry restrictions by the authorities of other states placed on citizens of United States. According to the 2015 Visa Restrictions Index, holders of a United States passport can visit 172 countries and territories visa-free or with visa on arrival. The United States passport is currently ranked joint 2nd alongside Finnish and Swedish citizens in terms of travel freedom in the world.Nationals[edit]
This article is about United States nationality law. For information regarding United States citizenship, see Citizenship in the United States.Although all U.S. citizens are also U.S. nationals, the reverse is not true. As specified in 8 U.S.C. § 1408, a person whose only connection to the U.S. is through birth in an outlying possession (which is defined in 8 U.S.C. § 1101 as American Samoa and Swains Island (which is administered as part of American Samoa)), or through descent from a person so born, acquires U.S. nationality but not U.S. citizenship. This was formerly the case in only four other current or formerU.S. overseas possessions.[31]- Guam (1898–1950) (Citizenship granted by an Act of Congress through the Guam Organic Act of 1950).[32]
- the Philippines (1898–1935) (National status rescinded in 1935;[33] granted independence in 1946;[34] United States citizenship never accorded[35])
- Puerto Rico (1898–1917) (Citizenship granted through the Jones–Shafroth Act of 1917).[36]
- the U.S. Virgin Islands (1917–1927) (Citizenship granted by an Act of Congress in 1927).[37]
The nationality status of a person born in an unincorporated U.S. Minor Outlying Island is not specifically mentioned by law, but under international law and Supreme Court dicta, they are also regarded as non-citizen U.S. nationals.[38]In addition, residents of the Northern Mariana Islands who automatically gained U.S. citizenship in 1986 as a result of the Covenant between the Northern Marianas and the U.S. could elect to become non-citizen nationals within 6 months of the implementation of the Covenant or within 6 months of turning 18.[39]The U.S. passport issued to non-citizen nationals contains the endorsement code 9 which states: "THE BEARER IS A UNITED STATES NATIONAL AND NOT A UNITED STATES CITIZEN." on the annotations page.[40]Non-citizen U.S. nationals may reside and work in the United States without restrictions, and may apply for citizenship under the same rules as resident aliens. Like resident aliens, they are not presently allowed by any U.S. state to vote in federal or state elections, although, as with resident aliens, there is no constitutional prohibition against their doing so.Like U.S. citizens, non-citizen U.S. nationals may transmit their non-citizen U.S. nationality to children born abroad, although the rules are somewhat different than for U.S. citizens.[41]Citizenship at birth on the U.S. territories and former U.S. territories[edit]
The 14th amendment applies to incorporated territories, so people born in incorporated territories of the U.S. (currently, only the Palmyra Atoll) are automatically U.S. citizens at birth.[42]Separate sections of law handle territories that the United States has acquired over time, such as Alaska 8 U.S.C. § 1404 and Hawaii 8 U.S.C. § 1405, both incorporated, and unincorporated Puerto Rico 8 U.S.C. § 1402, the U.S. Virgin Islands 8 U.S.C. § 1406, and Guam 8 U.S.C. § 1407. Each of these sections confer citizenship on persons living in these territories as of a certain date, and usually confer native-born status on persons born in incorporated territories after that date.[43]For example, for Puerto Rico, all persons born in Puerto Rico between April 11, 1899, and January 12, 1941, were automatically conferred U.S. citizenship as of the date the law was signed by the President Harry S. Truman on June 27, 1952. Additionally, all persons born in Puerto Rico on or after January 13, 1941, are citizens at birth of the United States. Note that because of when the law was passed, for some, the citizenship status was retroactive.The law contains one other section of historical note, concerning the Panama Canal Zone and the nation of Panama. In 8 U.S.C. § 1403, the law states that anyone born in the Canal Zone or in Panama itself, on or after February 26, 1904, to a mother or father who is a United States citizen, was "declared" to be a United States citizen at birth.All persons born in the U.S. Virgin Islands on or after February 25, 1927, are native-born citizens of the United States. The 8 U.S.C. § 1406 also indicate that all the persons and their children born in the U.S. Virgin Islands subsequent to January 17, 1917, and prior to February 25, 1927, are declared to be citizens of the United States as of February 25, 1927 if complied with the U.S. law dispositions.All persons born in Alaska on or after June 2, 1924, are native-born citizens of the United States. Alaska was declared a U.S. State on January 3, 1959.All persons born in Hawaii on or after April 30, 1900, are native-born citizens of the United States. Hawaii was declared a U.S. State on August 21, 1959.All persons born in the island of Guam on or after April 11, 1899 (whether before or after August 1, 1950) subject to the jurisdiction of the United States, are declared to be citizens of the United States.Currently under the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952 (INA) effective from December 24, 1952 to present the definition of the "United States" for nationality purposes, was expanded to add Guam; and, effective November 3, 1986, the Northern Mariana Islands (in addition to Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands of the United States).[44] Persons born in these territories on or after December 24, 1952 acquire U.S. citizenship at birth on the same terms as persons born in other parts of the United States; and "Outlying possessions of the United States" was restricted to American Samoa and Swains Island.[45]Congressional Research Service Report number RL30527 of April 17, 2000, titled "Presidential Elections in the United States: A Primer" asserts that citizens born in Guam,Puerto Rico, and the U.S. Virgin Islands are legally defined as natural born citizens, and are, therefore, also eligible to be elected President.[46]Loss of citizenship[edit]
See also: List of former United States citizens who relinquished their nationality and List of denaturalized former citizens of the United StatesAs a historical matter, U.S. citizenship could be forfeited upon the undertaking of various acts, including naturalization in a foreign state (with a willful intent to renounce U.S. citizenship) or service in foreign armed forces. In addition, before 1967 it was possible to lose the citizenship due to voting in foreign elections. However, the Supreme Court ruled unconstitutional the provisions of Section 349(a) which provided for loss of nationality by voting in a foreign election in the case Afroyim v. Rusk, 387 U.S. 253,[47] 8 U.S.C. § 1481 specifically outlines how loss of nationality may occur, which predominantly involves willful acts over the age of 18 with the intention of relinquishing United States nationality. U.S. Supreme Court decisions beginning with Afroyim v. Rusk constitutionally limited the government's capacity to terminate citizenship to those cases in which an individual engaged in conduct with an intention of abandoning their citizenship.In 1990, the U.S. State Department adopted new regulations which presume that an individual does not intend to give up citizenship when performing one of the above potentially expatriating acts.[48] If asked, the individual can always answer that they did not intend to give it up; this is sufficient to retain their citizenship.[49] Hence, the U.S. effectively allows citizens to acquire new citizenships while remaining a U.S. citizen, becoming a dual citizen.After a U.S. citizen satisfies the Department of State procedures, the Department of State issues a Certificate of Loss of Nationality (CLN) signifying that the Department of State has accepted the U.S. Embassy/Consulate's recommendation to allow the renunciation.[50] Renunciation of citizenship includes renunciation of all rights and privileges of citizenship. A person who wants to renounce U.S. citizenship cannot decide to retain some of the privileges of citizenship, as the State Department regards this as logically inconsistent with the concept of renunciation. Thus, such a person can be said to lack a full understanding of renouncing citizenship or lack the necessary intent to renounce citizenship, and the Department of State will not approve a loss of citizenship in such instances.[51]People giving up U.S. citizenship may be subject to an expatriation tax. Originally, under the Foreign Investors Tax Act of 1966, people determined to be giving up citizenship for the purpose of avoiding U.S. taxation were subject to 10 years of continued taxation on their U.S.-source income, to prevent ex-citizens from taking advantage of special tax incentives offered to foreigners investing in the United States.[52] Since 2008, these provisions no longer apply; instead, ex-citizens who meet certain asset or tax liability thresholds pay a one-time capital gains tax on a deemed sale of their U.S. and non-U.S. assets, regardless of their reasons for giving up citizenship.[53] The Reed Amendment, a 1996 law, makes former citizens inadmissible to the U.S. if the Attorney General finds that they renounced citizenship for purposes of avoiding taxes; however, it has never been enforced.[54][55] Proposals such as the Ex-PATRIOT Act to rewrite the Reed Amendment and make it enforceable failed in 2012 and 2013.It is also possible to forfeit U.S. citizenship upon conviction for an act of treason against the United States.[49] Prominent former Nazi officers who acquired American citizenship have also had it revoked if the Office of Special Investigations has been able to prove that the citizenship was obtained by concealing their involvement in war crimes committed by the Nazis in World War II.[56][57]
Air^Awe^Man^See On Talk Radio With Alan Colmes!!
Posted:2016-02-02 19:02:49 UTC-08:00
Coldest air of the season to highlight first full week of 2016 across eastern US
Much colder weather is in store across the central and eastern United States during January 2016, following months of warmth with record-challenging temperatures.Warm air recently pushed toward the North Pole. As a balancing act, colder air will be forced farther to the south.While much colder weather is on the way, it will stop well short of January 2015, when winter broke loose in most areas. Temperatures averaged 10-20 degrees Fahrenheit below normal with highs in the single digits, teens and 20s over the Northern states.AccuWeather Chief Long Range Meteorologist Paul Pastelok does not anticipate that to happen to that extreme this year.
aeromancy
\AIR-uh-man-see\noun
1. the prediction of future events from observation of weather conditions.Quotes Mostly we compare them / to silent things, sensing / that thunder is something else / that gets into them—a stone, a god— / and, as for what they want to say, / aeromancy, which presumed to interpret, / never caught on.
-- James Richardson, "Essay on Clouds," The New Yorker, February 2, 2015Origin Aeromancy entered English in the mid-1300s. The combining form aero- means "air," and the combining form -mancy means "divination" of the kind specified by the initial element. "We do not expect a big displacement of the polar vortex at this time, but rather waves of arctic air that roll southeastward and interact with less cold air over the U.S. during January," Pastelok said.First blast of cold to roll through Jan. 3-5One small piece of arctic air will move southward from central Canada and across the Great Lakes and Northeast spanning into Tuesday.
"This air will be the coldest of the season thus far, which might not seem like much on paper, but it will deliver significantly low temperatures," Pastelok said.High temperatures will be held to the teens F in upstate New York and northern New England. Temperatures will be held to the 20s in Detroit and Boston and the 30s in New York City. Low temperatures are likely to dip below zero in part of upstate New York and northern New England.RELATED:
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TRENDING: Top viral videos of the year in 90 secondsThe arctic cold shot could deliver the first snowflakes of the season to parts of the mid-Atlantic that have not yet had flurries on Monday.Brief warm spell expected before cold returns Jan. 11-18During the latter part of the first week of January into the second weekend of the month, the cold air will ease up over much of the Central and Eastern states."Temperatures will again trend above average in many areas, but will stop well short of record high levels," Pastelok said.Highs will generally range from the 30s in the northern tier to the 60s over the interior South.Prior to the middle of the month, colder air will sweep eastward from the Central states, following one or two storms that can bring snow and ice to parts of the Ohio Valley, central Appalachians to New England, mainly away from the Atlantic coast.
"The slow-moving storm spanning Jan. 10-12 is the one that could pack the most punch in terms of wintry precipitation and widespread cold to follow," Pastelok said.The cold will add to hardship in the recent aftermath of record flooding over the middle Mississippi Valley.During the middle of the month, cities from Kansas City, Missouri, and St. Louis to Cincinnati and Pittsburgh may have multiple days where temperatures fail to climb past the freezing mark. High temperatures may be within a few degrees of freezing in New York City and Philadelphia.In the South, multiple days with highs in the 40s are likely from Little Rock, Arkansas, to Atlanta and Richmond, Virginia are likely during the middle of the month.Scenarios: Will the polar vortex usher in cold for late January?On one hand, waves of cold air may get more intense from the North Central states to the East. On the other hand, the cold air may ease up during the latter part of the month.Pastelok stated that he and his team of long-range meteorologists are leaning toward a scenario with continued back-and-forth cold and mild episodes, where milder Pacific air will blend in with the cold resulting in less harsh conditions for much of the Eastern states after Jan. 18.However, cold air is likely to be persistent in the North Central states and continue in waves into northern New England due to established snowcover."We will have to watch the position of the polar vortex toward the middle of the month," Pastelok said. "There is a chance the vortex splits and sends one batch of intense cold toward Europe and the other batch toward North America during the latter part of January."Pastelok's crew still anticipate a stormy February along the Pacific, Gulf and Atlantic coasts with enough cold air to bring the potential for multiple snow and ice events in the Northeast.
A Light Hoarseman??
Posted:2016-02-02 15:53:21 UTC-08:00
List In the Wind is the Whisper of the Steam as the Kettle told of the Brights,lights upon the avenue of blood,throats cut to that pour,down the gutter to the choke EAN of Express Shin,since that is the Maps on those Charts tears I brave choice to Shame you.Since Iowa Stood to Falls it is the Strength of Kennedy on the will to Provide the Staggering,watch the Cause heat to beat the Suns burn to a Tan,Moons on the shadows of every Berth shallow,a Pier chins to clock Sting in as that is the Symphony of what I due believe An Or dure!!Challenge the Wisdom of the Plough to the Farmers Terminology on the grounds dirt with Fertile Eyes Ore,this is the Fact that People can be of the Seed,rise to the dawn of Horror Eyes in and Gallop the Pole its the Flag on despair.Rocks that have Carvings to the Coin,those Heads know Tales??,only in the Virtue of the Change,thats the stone of Mints that date and Plural a deep Decide to communicate LIVE,this is not the halve pass to the Whole in the Wall,its the Street of Tab err Knack call.
Whose You're Trainer??
Posted:2016-02-02 15:31:55 UTC-08:00
The Hear on the Bell is that Obvious damage of the Shingle on the Lathe of this Torn,it is not that Ring??,is It than the Lag??,should the People believe that singing is not that truth than the voice is in the booth,it is auditioned for the cyclone to touch down on the fluster of only Hey bust Tour,Stretch this note to Boast??,no,yawn for the Lie On??,no,dig for the Swells?,no thats just a Tongue on language be Lo the thimble of a Ball.Try Tread it is the Heel on the Ride to be of balance inn the Seat of the Timing on a Life,sure that is the Ups the falls and the Waist on water and Muds,yet in the Troop it is the Compass to Speak and not just blob on a plu Toe to Plan^It Easter too Egg,scramble Scrabble to Not Not know that words are the Sentences with a dig??,should the Value be a Flag with Stars and Stripes??,does no the Stamp of every Each thread conversation to the Tax??.On the Long length In the Wreath of such Gentle sigh Its that Breadth to Ageless Beats,a rhythm that Can be In Hale to these dark Hours on the Ground dead,breathing with the Tempo of a Limb??,burr is the rub on Lives to starve the concentration with that dime Took to boil Frogs and Cause Tick pounds,shame on the world and the Needle to Demand My Words to say that Yesterday Today provides this as An IM^Pyre stratus Sphere!!Spoke to Wheel in the Signs??,Church And State have Marred the United States of America in a Dingle bury,the chase is no of In cyst Tents its the Booked!!Where is Justice??,blinded by the Ban Dan nah of Every Query that ever Sailed to that Statue for the Freedom to answer a Constitutions Steep,pull the Pen!!,Gauge the Delivery!!these are the Days of Our Lives being Raised to Skill!!,ore the globe Bowl with mild Chew to Operation lie.
IM^Pull^Shun For The Legs On Legs Off While A Clinic Taught The Wok A Quick??
Posted:2016-02-02 12:34:31 UTC-08:00
Why is The rye Full calling Mechanics of the Method of Use to Fin A^gain a Hare Pen??,is it the Mail an On VOL. lope or the Back To base . . . .
Remember The View 'Cause It Was Not A Drive Through As A Thoroughfare To Task It Was Like Mattel??
Posted:2016-02-02 12:23:02 UTC-08:00
Too Whom this is the Fax on the Matter of the Operation of Safeway to register Big stunk,the truth of that Cash Ear is to Know thee Measure of the Coin to that slot Dry Ear??,is the Person Whom is not filling Shelves rather Filing Goods is Of Tremendous turns!!,these Compass Leeks of Soup bisque Sell or Reed Off flutes??,nigh the Show of Wall Street Commercial to the Market of the See e! Owe`d.Stern to the Yacht is of the Shipping News as that is the Pot tate Tow to Sa^Ply & duh^Man`d??,simple Provisions??,Staples??,well that Won actual Works Public to that Floor uh to Treat the Stick Up today,a Card Board display on this Google Blog as Course On Course With choice to Shown.The syn SUS on the ss is of the Sea Aye Eh??,what of the Animal per Cap uh Tug??,is the Cans lei Bull a Moose for the Dawn Key of Political??,is that In sure Hence of the Vat vapor or Smoke Keen gun??,Tride & True Thoroughs bread And butter.The A mount that I first Person witnessed at PetsMart as a Real Store Director was off Counter as Well as On,the piece to that is the RSVP??,at invitation the bell on the Cage of the Cat Litter to the Food paid for buy the Store itself.Doe Nation of the two Weak stone is the Flush EAN,as the turn Over came from Freeze to Ill as the Sheet rode Wide Highs on Reverb,vibration to that is And Talked of Sammy's Pet World base ground of the Tact??,no that was the Animal Connection of Levi to the Beanbag chair of rats a Tack`d,perfect to the expression of the Train kneeing to Station An early Warn Kneeing System Mat tick Pulse??,what say Sam to Brian should the Value giant while Giant Values the Fish EAN sole??,that is the At Vantage to the Bus??,no but It end dead the Stocktank of a Pond to Lake Street as Keys of Derby cent to that leash a Call lure on lag.Wares of Rye^An brought much More that salt Water and reef,it was the said a Meant that said to the Dock Watch the go??,reality Knew of the Spray & yet did not Suffer Aye Deed the Trust as a language of Piercing,these Kinds of tip A Cole singers have a Lyrics to bring a Calm be From the storm,for in the deal??,or is it Cope??,or is the lisp a stumble on the dued??,ding Dong the Twinkie is the spark Call of the Grands on the Out Tour skirts,a dance of a waltz that made the world Wool Worths the Ice Cream Can dee of a dream EAN squirrels Perch!!
Buy George More^Us!!!
Posted:2016-02-02 09:15:26 UTC-08:00
Lets see Set Zero once now a Pong,the Ping said Rick and that went Tick E!,sew than the Fact tore Raised a bored.Cheese and Wine??,a bit of Spaghetti??,a West Turn to No??,how many Doll lips Does the Dew Duh Dap Pole??.As The Horse is a Riding sport to State of the Saw 'V'^Whren what say the Saddle??,a Cinch or a girth,a Notch or the Whole that Bridles are the Snaffle bits that Curbs are chains or Leather strapped??,which is the Best of Show touch Chin that Classic coal??,an Avenue or the Dust??.The Queens a Defining Tune,pride and those Letters to the Crown,speak with Mars to say that the Jukebox Is a Clue.
2/2/2016 The Date ~ 4:27 AM The Time To Say Good Morning To Each And Every Perk, The Awe^Mish!!
Posted:2016-02-02 04:29:59 UTC-08:00
Cure E! US curious The National method is to Operator the Virtue of the Extra 'X'^Straw Stair,The Wik A Pea dee uh is like that Waltz of Fathom to enter Sept.^shin on the Big Grate Bald,goods for the Dye ready self from the called,get to that See 'V' S on bee bee See??,owe Well the deep Grade to Turn Mow bowl??,from side to side the Reader's Digest??,oop's Aye Mean did that Picture Talk or speak to Ewe??.Fields of The dreams that Built a Mighty Mountain on the Vast differences in Shore,that is the single grain of sand,the beauty of a dialing on the waves of the Owe Shins magnificent Roar!!Hear do State of Thank all of those Incredible people in Iowa,that Beautiful tempo to stride the American towards Onward Forward!!the grip and that grasp of singing wherever We go.Just Love!! for Ever & eh Day!!
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