Thursday, March 10, 2016

The Most Incredible Sole^Lar System Is On Or^Rye^Inn's Belt To The Only Spell^Lean Show: Rock & Role??

Exploration of Mars

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Not to be confused with Colonization of Mars.
Active missions at Mars
Year
    2015
    7
    2014
    7
    2013
    5
    2012
    5
    2011
    4
    2010
    5
    2009
    5
    2008
    6
    2007
    5
    2006
    6
    2005
    5
    2004
    5
    2003
    3
    2002
    2
    The exploration of Mars is the study of Mars by spacecraft. Probes sent from Earth, beginning in the late 20th century, have yielded a dramatic increase in knowledge about the Martian system, focused primarily on understanding its geology and habitability potential.[1]

    Contents

    Current status[edit]

    Engineering interplanetary journeys is complicated and the exploration of Mars has experienced a high failure rate, especially the early attempts. Roughly two-thirds of all spacecraft destined for Mars failed before completing their missions and some failed before their observations could begin. Some missions have met with unexpected success, such as the twin Mars Exploration Rovers, which operating for years beyond their specification.[2] On 15 March 2015, two scientific rovers were on the surface of Mars beaming signals back to Earth (Opportunity of the Mars Exploration Rover mission and Curiosity of the Mars Science Laboratory mission), with five orbiters surveying the planet: Mars OdysseyMars ExpressMars Reconnaissance OrbiterMars Orbiter Mission and MAVEN, which have contributed massive amounts of information about Mars. No sample return missions have been attempted for Mars and an attempted return mission for Mars' moon Phobos (Fobos-Grunt) failed.[3]
    On 24 January 2014, NASA reported that current studies on the planet Mars by the Curiosity and Opportunity rovers will search for evidence of ancient life, including a biospherebased on autotrophicchemotrophic and/or chemolithoautotrophic microorganisms, as well as ancient water, including fluvio-lacustrine environments (plains related to ancientrivers or lakes) that may have been habitable.[1][4][5][6] The search for evidence of habitabilitytaphonomy (related to fossils), and organic carbon on the planet Mars is now a primary NASA objective.[1]

    Martian system[edit]

    Main articles: MarsAtmosphere of Mars and Moons of Mars
    File:Mars Landing Sites.ogv
    The landing site of each Mars mission can be seen on this rotating globe.
    Mars has long been the subject of human interest. Early telescopic observations revealed color changes on the surface that were attributed to seasonal vegetation and apparent linear features were ascribed to intelligent design. Further telescopic observations found two moons, Phobos and Deimos, polar ice caps and the feature now known as Olympus Mons, the solar system's tallest mountain. The discoveries piqued further interest in the study and exploration of the red planet. Mars is a rocky planet, like Earth, that formed around the same time, yet with only half the diameter of Earth, and a far thinner atmosphere, it has a cold and desert-like surface.[7]

    Launch windows[edit]

    Opportunities 2013-2020[8]
    YearLaunchSpacecraft (launched or planned)
    2013Nov 2013MAVENMars Orbiter Mission
    2016Jan 2016 – Apr 2016ExoMars TGO
    2018Apr 2018 – May 2018InSight
    2020Jul 2020 – Sep 2020ExoMars roverMars 2020
    The minimum-energy launch windowsfor a Martian expedition occur at intervals of approximately two years and two months (specifically 780 days, the planet's synodic period with respect to Earth).[9] In addition, the lowest available transfer energy varies on a roughly 16-year cycle.[9] For example, a minimum occurred in the 1969 and 1971 launch windows, rising to a peak in the late 1970s, and hitting another low in 1986 and 1988.[9]

    Past and current missions[edit]

    Launches to Mars
    Decade
      1960s
      13
      1970s
      11
      1980s
      2
      1990s
      8
      2000s
      8
      2010s
      4
      Martian sunset by Spirit rover, 2005.
      North polar view by Phoenix lander, 2008.
      Starting in 1960, the Soviets launched a series of probes to Mars including the intended first flybys and hard (impact) landing (Mars 1962B).[10] The first successful fly-by of Mars was on 14–15 July 1965, by NASA's Mariner 4.[11] On November 14, 1971 Mariner 9 became the first space probe to orbit another planet when it entered into orbit around Mars.[12] The amount of data returned by probes increased dramatically as technology improved.[10]
      The first to contact the surface were two Soviet probes: Mars 2 lander on November 27 and Mars 3 lander on December 2, 1971—Mars 2 failed during descent and Mars 3 about twenty seconds after the first Martian soft landing.[13] Mars 6failed during descent but did return some corrupted atmospheric data in 1974. [14] The 1975 NASA launches of the Viking program consisted of two orbiters, each with a lander that successfully soft landed in 1976. Viking 1 remained operational for six years, Viking 2 for three. The Viking landers relayed the first color panoramas of Mars.[15]
      The Soviet probes Phobos 1 and 2 were sent to Mars in 1988 to study Mars and its two moons, with a focus on Phobos. Phobos 1 lost contact on the way to Mars. Phobos 2, while successfully photographing Mars and Phobos, failed before it was set to release two landers to the surface of Phobos.[16]
      Roughly two-thirds of all spacecraft destined for Mars have failed without completing their missions, and it has a reputation as a difficult space exploration target.[17]
      Missions that ended prematurely after Phobos 1 & 2 (1988) include (see Probing difficulties section for more details):
      Following the 1993 failure of the Mars Observer orbiter, the NASA Mars Global Surveyor achieved Mars orbit in 1997. This mission was a complete success, having finished its primary mapping mission in early 2001. Contact was lost with the probe in November 2006 during its third extended program, spending exactly 10 operational years in space. The NASA Mars Pathfinder, carrying a robotic exploration vehicleSojourner, landed in the Ares Vallis on Mars in the summer of 1997, returning many images.[18]
      Phoenix landed on the north polar region of Mars on May 25, 2008.[19] Its robotic arm dug into the Martian soil and the presence of water ice was confirmed on June 20, 2008.[20][21] The mission concluded on November 10, 2008 after contact was lost.[22] In 2008, the price of transporting material from the surface of Earth to the surface of Mars was approximately US$309,000 per kilogram.[23]
      Rosetta came within 250 km of Mars during its 2007 flyby. [24] Dawn flew by Mars in February 2009 for a gravity assist on its way to investigate Vesta and Ceres[25]
      Tharsis MontesHellas PlanitiaOlympus MonsValles MarinerisArabia TerraAmazonis PlanitiaElysium MonsIsidis PlanitiaTerra CimmeriaArgyre PlanitiaAlba MonsMap of Mars
      Interactive imagemap of the global topography of Mars, overlain with locations of Mars landers and rovers. Hover your mouse to see the names of prominent geographic features, and click to link to them. Coloring of the base map indicates relative elevations, based on data from the Mars Orbiter Laser Altimeter on NASA's Mars Global Surveyor. Reds and pinks are higher elevation (+3 km to +8 km); yellow is 0 km; greens and blues are lower elevation (down to −8 km). Whites (>+12 km) and browns (>+8 km) are the highest-most elevations. Axes are latitude and longitude; note poles are not shown.

      Recent missions[edit]


      Curiosity's self-portrait on theplanet Mars at "Rocknest" (October 31, 2012).
      NASA's Mars Odyssey orbiter entered Mars orbit in 2001.[26] Odyssey's Gamma Ray Spectrometer detected significant amounts of hydrogen in the upper metre or so of regolith on Mars. This hydrogen is thought to be contained in large deposits of water ice.[27]
      The Mars Express mission of the European Space Agency (ESA) reached Mars in 2003. It carried the Beagle 2 lander, which was not heard from after being released and was declared lost in February 2004. Beagle 2 was located in January 2015 by HiRise camera on NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO) having landed safely but failed to fully deploy its solar panels and antenna.[28][29] In early 2004 the Mars Express Planetary Fourier Spectrometer team announced the orbiter had detected methane in the Martian atmosphere. ESA announced in June 2006 the discovery of aurorae on Mars.[30]
      In January 2004, the NASA twin Mars Exploration Rovers named Spirit (MER-A) and Opportunity (MER-B) landed on the surface of Mars. Both have met or exceeded all their targets. Among the most significant scientific returns has been conclusive evidence that liquid water existed at some time in the past at both landing sites. Martian dust devils and windstorms have occasionally cleaned both rovers' solar panels, and thus increased their lifespan.[31] Spirit Rover (MER-A) was active until 2010, when it stopped sending data, it had fallen into a sand dune.[3]
      On 10 March 2006, the NASA Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO) probe arrived in orbit to conduct a two-year science survey. The orbiter began mapping the Martian terrain and weather to find suitable landing sites for upcoming lander missions. The MRO snapped the first image of a series of active avalanches near the planet's north pole, scientists said March 3, 2008.[32]
      The Mars Science Laboratory mission was launched on November 26, 2011 and it delivered the Curiosity rover, on the surface of Mars on August 6, 2012 UTC. It is larger and more advanced than the Mars Exploration Rovers, with a velocity of up to 90 meters per hour (295 feet per hour).[33] Experiments include a laser chemical sampler that can deduce the make-up of rocks at a distance of 7 meters.[34]
      The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) launched its Mars Orbiter Mission (MOM) on November 5, 2013. It was successfully inserted into Mars orbit on 24 September 2014. India's ISRO is the fourth space agency to reach Mars, after the Soviet space programNASA and ESA.[35] India became the first country to successfully get a spacecraft into the Martian orbit on its maiden attempt.[36]
      Journey to Mars - Science, Exploration, Technology.

      Overview of missions[edit]

      The following entails a brief overview of Mars exploration, oriented towards orbiters and flybys; see also Mars landing and Mars rover.

      Early Soviet missions[edit]

      Main articles: Mars 1MMars 1 and Mars program

      Mars 1M spacecraft.

      1960s[edit]

      Between 1960 and 1969, the Soviet Union and the United States launched twelve probes intended to reach Mars. They all failed: three at launch; three failed to reach near-Earth orbit; one during the burn to put the spacecraft into trans-Mars trajectory; and two during the interplanetary orbit.
      The Mars 1M programs (sometimes dubbed Marsnik in Western media) was the first Soviet unmanned spacecraft interplanetary exploration program, which consisted of two flyby probes launched towards Mars in October 1960, Mars 1960A and Mars 1960B (also known as Korabl 4 and Korabl 5 respectively). After launch, the third stage pumps on both launchers were unable to develop enough pressure to commence ignition, so Earth parking orbit was not achieved. The spacecraft reached an altitude of 120 km before reentry.
      Mars 1962A was a Mars fly-by mission, launched on October 24, 1962 and Mars 1962B a intended first Mars lander mission, launched in late December of the same year (1962). Both failed from either breaking up as they were going into Earth orbit or having the upper stage explode in orbit during the burn to put the spacecraft into trans-Mars trajectory.[3]

      The first success[edit]

      Mars 1 (1962 Beta Nu 1), an automatic interplanetary spacecraft launched to Mars on November 1, 1962, was the first probe of the Soviet Mars probe program to achieve interplanetary orbit. Mars 1 was intended to fly by the planet at a distance of about 11,000 km and take images of the surface as well as send back data on cosmic radiation,micrometeoroid impacts and Mars' magnetic field, radiation environment, atmospheric structure, and possible organic compounds.[37][38] Sixty-one radio transmissions were held, initially at two-day intervals and later at 5 day intervals, from which a large amount of interplanetary data was collected. On 21 March 1963, when the spacecraft was at a distance of 106,760,000 km from Earth, on its way to Mars, communications ceased due to failure of its antenna orientation system.[37][38]
      In 1964, both Soviet probe launches, of Zond 1964A on June 4, and Zond 2 on November 30, (part of the Zond program), resulted in failures. Zond 1964A had a failure at launch, while communication was lost with Zond 2 en route to Mars after a mid-course maneuver, in early May 1965.[3]
      In 1969, and as part of the Mars probe program, the Soviet Union prepared two identical 5-ton orbiters called M-69, dubbed by NASA as Mars 1969A and Mars 1969B. Both probes were lost in launch-related complications with the newly developed Proton rocket.[39]

      1970s[edit]

      The USSR intended to have the first artificial satellite of Mars beating the planned American Mariner 8 and Mariner 9 Martian orbiters. In May 1971, one day after Mariner 8 malfunctioned at launch and failed to reach orbit, Cosmos 419 (Mars 1971C), a heavy probe of the Soviet Mars program M-71, also failed to launch. This spacecraft was designed as an orbiter only, while the next two probes of project M-71, Mars 2 and Mars 3, were multipurpose combinations of an orbiter and a lander with small skis-walkingrovers that would be the first planet rovers outside the Moon. They were successfully launched in mid-May 1971 and reached Mars about seven months later. On November 27, 1971 the lander of Mars 2 crash-landed due to an on-board computer malfunction and became the first man-made object to reach the surface of Mars. On 2 December 1971, the Mars 3 lander became the first spacecraft to achieve a soft landing, but its transmission was interrupted after 14.5 seconds.[40]
      The Mars 2 and 3 orbiters sent back a relatively large volume of data covering the period from December 1971 to March 1972, although transmissions continued through to August. By 22 August 1972, after sending back data and a total of 60 pictures, Mars 2 and 3 concluded their missions. The images and data enabled creation of surface relief maps, and gave information on the Martian gravity and magnetic fields.[41]
      In 1973, the Soviet Union sent four more probes to Mars: the Mars 4 and Mars 5 orbiters and the Mars 6 and Mars 7 fly-by/lander combinations. All missions except Mars 7 sent back data, with Mars 5 being most successful. Mars 5 transmitted 60 images before a loss of pressurization in the transmitter housing ended the mission. Mars 6 lander transmitted data during descent, but failed upon impact. Mars 4 flew by the planet at a range of 2200 km returning one swath of pictures and radio occultation data, which constituted the first detection of the nightside ionosphere on Mars.[42] Mars 7 probe separated prematurely from the carrying vehicle due to a problem in the operation of one of the onboard systems (attitude control or retro-rockets) and missed the planet by 1,300 kilometres (8.7×10−6 au).[citation needed]

      Mariner program[edit]


      The first close-up images taken of Mars in 1965 from Mariner 4 show an area about 330 km across by 1200 km from limb to bottom of frame.
      In 1964, NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory made two attempts at reaching Mars. Mariner 3 and Mariner 4 were identical spacecraft designed to carry out the first flybys of Mars. Mariner 3 was launched on November 5, 1964, but the shroud encasing the spacecraft atop its rocket failed to open properly, dooming the mission. Three weeks later, on November 28, 1964, Mariner 4 was launched successfully on a 7½-month voyage to Mars..[citation needed]
      Mariner 4 flew past Mars on July 14, 1965, providing the first close-up photographs of another planet. The pictures, gradually played back to Earth from a small tape recorder on the probe, showed impact craters. It provided radically more accurate data about the planet; a surface atmospheric pressure of about 1% of Earth's and daytime temperatures of −100 °C (−148 °F) were estimated. No magnetic field[43][44] or Martian radiation belts[45]were detected. The new data meant redesigns for then planned Martian landers, and showed life would have a more difficult time surviving there than previously anticipated.[46][47][48][49]

      Mariner Crater, as seen by Mariner 4. The location is Phaethontis quadrangle.
      NASA continued the Mariner program with another pair of Mars flyby probes, Mariner 6 and 7. They were sent at the next launch window, and reached the planet in 1969. During the following launch window the Mariner program again suffered the loss of one of a pair of probes. Mariner 9successfully entered orbit about Mars, the first spacecraft ever to do so, after the launch time failure of its sister ship, Mariner 8. When Mariner 9 reached Mars in 1971, it and two Soviet orbiters (Mars 2 and Mars 3, see Mars probe program below) found that a planet-wide dust storm was in progress. The mission controllers used the time spent waiting for the storm to clear to have the probe rendezvous with, and photograph, Phobos. When the storm cleared sufficiently for Mars' surface to be photographed by Mariner 9, the pictures returned represented a substantial advance over previous missions. These pictures were the first to offer more detailed evidence that liquid water might at one time have flowed on the planetary surface. They also finally discerned the true nature of many Martian albedo features. For example, Nix Olympica was one of only a few features that could be seen during the planetary duststorm, revealing it to be the highest mountain (volcano, to be exact) on any planet in the entire Solar System, and leading to its reclassification as Olympus Mons.[citation needed]

      Viking program[edit]

      The Viking program launched Viking 1 and 2 spacecraft to Mars in 1975; The program consisted of two orbiters and two landers – these were the first two spacecraft to successfully land and operate on Mars.
      Viking 1 lander site (1st color, July 21, 1976).
      Viking 2 lander site (1st color, September 5, 1976).
      Viking 2 lander site (September 25, 1977).
      (False color image) Frost at Viking 2 site (May 18, 1979).
      Martian sunset over Chryse Planitia at Viking 1 site (August 20, 1976).
      The primary scientific objectives of the lander mission were to search for biosignatures and observe meteorologicseismic and magnetic properties of Mars. The results of thebiological experiments on board the Viking landers remain inconclusive, with a reanalysis of the Viking data published in 2012 suggesting signs of microbial life on Mars.[50][51]
      Flood erosion at Dromorecrater.
      Tear-drop shaped islands at Oxia Palus.
      Streamlined islands in Lunae Palus.
      Scour patterns located in Lunae Palus.
      The Viking orbiters revealed that large floods of water carved deep valleys, eroded grooves into bedrock, and traveled thousands of kilometers. Areas of branched streams, in the southern hemisphere, suggest that rain once fell.[52][53][54]

      Mars Pathfinder[edit]


      Sojourner takes Alpha Proton X-ray Spectrometer measurements of the Yogi Rock.
      Main articles: Mars Pathfinder and Mars landing
      Mars Pathfinder was a U.S. spacecraft that landed a base station with a roving probe on Mars on July 4, 1997. It consisted of a lander and a small 10.6 kilograms (23 lb) wheeled robotic rover named Sojourner, which was the first rover to operate on the surface of Mars.[55][56] In addition to scientific objectives, the Mars Pathfinder mission was also a "proof-of-concept" for various technologies, such as an airbag landing system and automated obstacle avoidance, both later exploited by the Mars Exploration Rovers.[55]

      Mars Global Surveyor[edit]

      Main article: Mars Global Surveyor
      This image from Mars Global Surveyor spans a region about 1500 meters across. Gullies, similar to those formed on Earth, are visible from Newton Basin in Sirenum Terra.
      Gullies, similar to those formed on Earth, are visible on this image from Mars Global Surveyor.
      After the 1992 failure of NASA's Mars Observer orbiter, NASA retooled and launched Mars Global Surveyor (MGS). This mission was the first successful United States mission, and the first fully successful mission overall, to the red planet in two decades when it launched November 7, 1996, and entered orbit on September 12, 1997. After a year and a half trimming its orbit from a looping ellipse to a circular track around the planet, the spacecraft began its primary mapping mission in March 1999. It observed the planet from a low-altitude, nearly polar orbit over the course of one complete Martian year, the equivalent of nearly two Earth years. Mars Global Surveyor completed its primary mission on January 31, 2001, and completed several extended mission phases.[citation needed]
      The mission studied the entire Martian surface, atmosphere, and interior, and returned more data about the red planet than all previous Mars missions combined. The data has been archived and remains available publicly.[57]
      This color-coded elevation map was produced from data collected by Mars Global Surveyor.It shows an area around Northern Kasei Valles, showing relationships among Kasei Valles, Bahram Vallis, Vedra Vallis, Maumee Vallis, and Maja Valles. Map location is in Lunae Palus quadrangle and includes parts of Lunae Planum and Chryse Planitia.
      A color-coded elevation map produced from data collected by Mars Global Surveyor indicating the result of floods on Mars.
      Among key scientific findings, Global Surveyor took pictures of gullies and debris flow features that suggest there may be current sources of liquid water, similar to an aquifer, at or near the surface of the planet. Similar channels on Earth are formed by flowing water, but on Mars the temperature is normally too cold and the atmosphere too thin to sustain liquid water. Nevertheless, many scientists hypothesize that liquid groundwater can sometimes surface on Mars, erode gullies and channels, and pool at the bottom before freezing and evaporating.[citation needed]
      Magnetometer readings showed that the planet's magnetic field is not globally generated in the planet's core, but is localized in particular areas of the crust. New temperature data and closeup images of the Martian moon Phobos showed that its surface is composed of powdery material at least 1 metre (3 feet) thick, caused by millions of years of meteoroid impacts. Data from the spacecraft's laseraltimeter gave scientists their first 3-D views of Mars' north polar ice cap.[citation needed] On November 5, 2006 MGS lost contact with Earth.[58] NASA ended efforts to restore communication on January 28, 2007.[59]

      Mars Odyssey and Mars Express[edit]

      Main articles: 2001 Mars Odyssey and Mars Express
      In 2001, NASA's Mars Odyssey orbiter arrived at Mars. Its mission is to use spectrometers and imagers to hunt for evidence of past or present water and volcanic activity on Mars. In 2002, it was announced that the probe's gamma ray spectrometer and neutronspectrometer had detected large amounts of hydrogen, indicating that there are vast deposits of water ice in the upper three meters of Mars' soil within 60° latitude of the south pole.[citation needed]
      On June 2, 2003, the European Space Agency's Mars Express set off from Baikonur Cosmodrome to Mars. The Mars Express craft consists of the Mars Express Orbiter and the stationary lander Beagle 2. The lander carried a digging device and the smallest massspectrometer created to date, as well as a range of other devices, on a robotic arm in order to accurately analyze soil beneath the dusty surface to look for biosignatures and biomolecules.[citation needed]
      The orbiter entered Mars orbit on December 25, 2003, and Beagle 2 entered Mars' atmosphere the same day. However, attempts to contact the lander failed. Communications attempts continued throughout January, but Beagle 2 was declared lost in mid-February, and a joint inquiry was launched by the UK and ESA. The Mars Express Orbiter confirmed the presence of water ice and carbon dioxide ice at the planet's south pole, while NASA had previously confirmed their presence at the north pole of Mars.[citation needed]
      The lander's fate remained a mystery until it was located intact on the surface of Mars in a series of images from the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.[60][61] The images suggest that two of the spacecraft's four solar panels failed to deploy, blocking the spacecraft's communications antenna. Beagle 2 is the first British and first European probe to achieve a soft landing on Mars.[citation needed]

      MER and Phoenix[edit]

      See also: Mars landing

      Polar surface as seen by thePhoenix lander.
      NASA's Mars Exploration Rover Mission (MER), started in 2003, is an ongoing robotic space mission involving two rovers, Spirit (MER-A) and Opportunity, (MER-B) exploring the Martian surface geology.[citation needed] The mission's scientific objective is to search for and characterize a wide range of rocks and soils that hold clues to past water activity on Mars. The mission is part of NASA's Mars Exploration Program, which includes three previous successful landers: the two Viking program landers in 1976; and Mars Pathfinder probe in 1997.[citation needed]

      Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter[edit]

      Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter is a multipurpose spacecraft designed to conduct reconnaissance and exploration of Mars from orbit. The $720 million USD spacecraft was built by Lockheed Martin under the supervision of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, launched August 12, 2005, and attained Martian orbit on March 10, 2006.[citation needed]
      The MRO contains a host of scientific instruments such as the HiRISE camera, CTX camera, CRISM, and SHARAD. The HiRISE camera is used to analyze Martian landforms, whereas CRISM and SHARAD can detect waterice, and minerals on and below the surface. Additionally, MRO is paving the way for upcoming generations of spacecraft through daily monitoring of Martian weather and surface conditions, searching for future landing sites, and testing a new telecommunications system that enable it to send and receive information at an unprecedented bitrate, compared to previous Mars spacecraft. Data transfer to and from the spacecraft occurs faster than all previous interplanetary missions combined and allows it to serve as an important relay satellite for other missions.[citation needed]

      Rosetta and Dawn swingbys[edit]

      Main articles: Rosetta (spacecraft) and Dawn Mission
      The ESA Rosetta space probe mission to the comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko flew within 250 km of Mars on February 25, 2007, in a gravitational slingshot designed to slow and redirect the spacecraft.[62]
      The NASA Dawn spacecraft used the gravity of Mars in 2009 to change direction and velocity on its way to Vesta, and tested out Dawn's cameras and other instruments on Mars.[63]

      Fobos-Grunt[edit]

      Main article: Fobos-Grunt
      In November 8, 2011, Russia's Roscosmos launched an ambitious mission called Fobos-Grunt. It consisted of a lander aimed to retrieve a sample back to Earth from Mars' moonPhobos, and place the Chinese Yinghuo-1 probe in Mars' orbit. The Fobos-Grunt mission suffered a complete control and communications failure shortly after launch and was left stranded in low Earth orbit, later falling back to Earth.[64] The Yinghuo-1 satellite and Fobos-Grunt underwent destructive re-entry on January 15, 2012, finally disintegrating over the Pacific Ocean.[65][66][67]

      Curiosity rover[edit]


      Curiosity's view of Aeolis Mons ("Mount Sharp") foothills on August 9, 2012 EDT (white balanced image).
      The NASA Mars Science Laboratory mission with its rover named Curiosity, was launched on November 26, 2011,[68][69] and landed on Mars on August 6, 2012 on Aeolis Palus in Gale Crater. The rover carries instruments designed to look for past or present conditions relevant to the past or present habitability of Mars.[70][71][72][73]

      MAVEN[edit]

      NASA's MAVEN is an orbiter mission to study the upper atmosphere of Mars.[74] It will also serve as a communications relay satellite for robotic landers and rovers on the surface of Mars. MAVEN was launched 18 November 2013 and reached Mars on 22 September 2014.[citation needed]

      Mars Orbiter Mission[edit]

      The Mars Orbiter Mission, also called Mangalyaan, was launched on 5 November 2013 by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO).[75] It was successfully inserted into Martian orbit on 24 September 2014. The mission is a technology demonstrator, and as secondary objective, it will also study the Martian atmosphere. This is India's first mission to Mars, and with it, ISRO became the fourth space agency to successfully reach Mars after the Soviet Union, NASA (USA) and ESA (Europe). It also made India the first country to reach Mars orbit on its first attempt and also the first Asian country to successfully send an orbiter to Mars. It was completed in a record low budget of $71 million,[76][77] making it the least-expensive Mars mission to date.[78]

      Future missions[edit]

      Proposals[edit]

      • The Finnish-Russian MetNet concept would, if implemented in 2015, use multiple small meteorological stations on Mars to establish a widespread observation network to investigate the planet's atmospheric structure, physics and meteorology.[93] The MetNet precursor or demonstrator was considered for a piggyback launch on Fobos-Grunt,[94] and on the two proposed to fly on the 2016 and 2020 ExoMars spacecraft.[93]
      • The Mars-Grunt is a Russian mission concept to bring a sample of Martian soil to Earth.[95]
      • A ESA-NASA team produced a three-launch architecture concept for a Mars sample return, which uses a rover to cache small samples, a Mars ascent stage to send it into orbit, and an orbiter to rendezvous with it above Mars and take it to Earth.[96] Solar-electric propulsion could allow a one launch sample return instead of three.[97]
      • The Mars Scout Program's SCIM would involve a probe grazing the upper atmosphere of Mars to collect dust and air for return to Earth.[98]
      • The United Arab Emirates announced that the first mission of its space agency will be to send an orbiter to Mars, the Mars Hope, by 2020.[99][100]
      • On 10 Nov 2014, China unveiled a prototype model of a Mars rover based on its lunar rover Yutu at an annual air show at Zhuhai. The CASC also said that a mission including an orbiter, lander and the rover will be sent before 2020.[101]
      Other future mission concepts include polar probes, Martian aircraft and a network of small meteorological stations.[96] Longterm areas of study may include Martian lava tubes, resource utilization, and electronic charge carriers in rocks.[102][103] Micromissions are another possibility, such as piggybacking a small spacecraft on an Ariane 5 rocket and using a lunar gravity assist to get to Mars.[104]

      Human mission proposals[edit]


      Concept for NASA Design Reference Mission Architecture 5.0 (2009).
      Main article: Human mission to Mars
      Many people have long advocated a human mission to Mars, perhaps eventually leading to the permanentcolonization of Mars, as the next logical step for a human space program after lunar exploration. Aside from the prestige such a mission would bring, advocates argue that humans would easily be able to outperform robotic explorers, justifying the expense. Aerospace engineer Bob Zubrin is one of the proponents of such missions. Some critics contend unmanned robots can perform better than humans at a fraction of the expense. If life exists on Mars, a human mission could contaminate it by introducing earthly microbes, so robotic exploration would be preferable.[105]

      ESA[edit]

      The ESA has plans to land humans on Mars between 2030 and 2035.[106] This will be preceded by successively larger probes, starting with the launch of the ExoMars probe[106] and a planned joint NASA–ESA Mars sample return mission.[107]

      NASA[edit]


      Artistic simulated photo looking out a portal spacecraft coming for a Mars landing.
      Human exploration by the United States was identified as a long-term goal in the Vision for Space Exploration announced in 2004 by then US President George W. Bush.[108] The planned Orion spacecraft would be used to send a human expedition to Earth's moon by 2020 as a stepping stone to a Mars expedition. On September 28, 2007, NASA administrator Michael D. Griffin stated that NASA aims to put a person on Mars by 2037.[109]
      On December 2, 2014, NASA's Advanced Human Exploration Systems and Operations Mission Director Jason Crusan and Deputy Associate Administrator for Programs James Reuthner announced tentative support for the Boeing "Affordable Mars Mission Design" including radiation shielding, centrifugal artificial gravity, in-transit consumable resupply, and a lander which can return.[110][111] Reuthner suggested that if adequate funding was forthcoming, the proposed mission would be expected in the early 2030s.[112]
      On October 8, 2015, NASA published its official plan for human exploration and colonization of Mars. The plan operates through three distinct phases leading up to fully sustained colonization.[113] The first stage, already underway, is the "Earth Reliant" phase. This phase continues utilizing the International Space Station until 2024; validating deep space technologies and studying the effects of long duration space missions on the human body. The second stage, "Proving Ground," moves away from Earth reliance and ventures into cislunar space for most of its tasks. This is when NASA plans to capture an asteroid (planned for 2020), test deep space habitation facilities, and validate capabilities required for human exploration of Mars. Finally, phase three is the transition to independence from Earth resources. The "Earth Independent" phase includes long term missions on the lunar surface which leverage surface habitats that only require routine maintenance, and the harvesting of Martian resources for fuel, water, and building materials. NASA is still aiming for human missions to Mars in in the 2030s, though Earth independence could take decades longer.[114]

      Zubrin[edit]

      Mars Direct, a low-cost human mission proposed by Robert Zubrin, founder of the Mars Society, would use heavy-lift Saturn V class rockets, such as the Ares V, to skip orbital construction, LEO rendezvous, and lunar fuel depots. A modified proposal, called "Mars to Stay", involves not returning the first immigrant explorers immediately, if ever (seeColonization of Mars).[108][109][115][115] [116]

      Probing difficulties[edit]


      Deep Space 2 technology
      The challenge, complexity and length of Mars missions have lead to many mission failures.[117] The high failure rate of missions launchedfrom Earth attempting to explore Mars is informally called the "Mars Curse" or "Martian Curse".[118] The phrase "Galactic Ghoul"[119] or "Great Galactic Ghoul", referring to a fictitious space monster that subsists on a diet of Mars probes, was coined in 1997 by Time Magazine journalist Donald Neff, and is sometimes facetiously used to "explain" the recurring difficulties.[120][121][122][123]
      Two Soviet probes were sent to Mars in 1988 as part of the Phobos programPhobos 1 operated normally until an expected communications session on 2 September 1988 failed to occur. The problem was traced to a software error, which deactivated attitude thrusters causing the spacecrafts' solar arrays to no longer point at the Sun, depleting Phobos 1 batteries. Phobos 2 operated normally throughout its cruise and Mars orbital insertion phases on January 29, 1989, gathering data on the Sun, interplanetary medium, Mars, and Phobos. Shortly before the final phase of the mission, during which the spacecraft was to approach within 50 m of Phobos' surface and release two landers, one a mobile 'hopper', the other a stationary platform, contact with Phobos 2 was lost. The mission ended when the spacecraft signal failed to be successfully reacquired on March 27, 1989. The cause of the failure was determined to be a malfunction of the on-board computer.[citation needed]
      Just a few years later in 1992 Mars Observer, launched by NASA, failed as it approached Mars. Mars 96, an orbiter launched on November 16, 1996 by Russia failed, when the planned second burn of the Block D-2 fourth stage did not occur.[124]
      Following the success of Global Surveyor and Pathfinder, another spate of failures occurred in 1998 and 1999, with the Japanese Nozomi orbiter and NASA's Mars Climate OrbiterMars Polar Lander, and Deep Space 2 penetrators all suffering various fatal errors. Mars Climate Orbiter was noted for mixing up U.S. customary units with metric units, causing the orbiter to burn up while entering Mars' atmosphere.[citation needed]

      Timeline of Mars exploration[edit]

      Source:[125]

      Totals[edit]

      Mission typeSuccess rateTotal attemptsSuccessPartial successLaunch failureFailed en routeFailed to orbit/land
      Flyby45%1150420
      Orbiter50%23102533
      Lander53%1580034
      Rover66%640002
      Total53%55272989
      Mars missions by year
      Mars mission rates through time
      1969/1971 and 1986/1988 are historical minimum energy launch windows to Mars
      note: for the purpose of this graph an orbiter carrying a lander is considered two missions

      Timeline[edit]

      [hide]Mission (1960–1969)LaunchArrival at MarsTerminationElementsOutcome
      Soviet space programme Mars 1M No.110 October 196010 October 1960FlybyLaunch failure
      Soviet space programme Mars 1M No.214 October 196014 October 1960FlybyLaunch failure
      Soviet space programme Mars 2MV-4 No.124 October 196224 October 1962FlybyBroke up shortly after launch
      Soviet space programme Mars 11 November 196221 March 1963FlybySome data collected, but lost contact before reaching Mars, flyby at approx. 193,000 km
      Soviet space programme Mars 2MV-3 No.14 November 196219 January 1963LanderFailed to leave Earth's orbit
      National Aeronautics and Space Administration, USA Mariner 35 November 19645 November 1964FlybyFailure during launch ruined trajectory
      National Aeronautics and Space Administration, USA Mariner 428 November 196414 July 196521 December 1967FlybySuccess (21 images returned)[10]
      Soviet space programme Zond 230 November 1964May 1965FlybyCommunication lost three months before reaching Mars
      National Aeronautics and Space Administration, USA Mariner 625 February 196931 July 1969August 1969FlybySuccess
      National Aeronautics and Space Administration, USA Mariner 727 March 19695 August 1969August 1969FlybySuccess
      Soviet space programme Mars 2M No.52127 March 196927 March 1969OrbiterLaunch failure
      Soviet space programme Mars 2M No.5222 April 19692 April 1969OrbiterLaunch failure
      Mission (1970–1989)LaunchArrival at MarsTerminationElementsOutcome
      National Aeronautics and Space Administration, USA Mariner 88 May 19718 May 1971OrbiterLaunch failure
      Soviet space programme Kosmos 41910 May 197112 May 1971OrbiterLaunch failure
      National Aeronautics and Space Administration, USA Mariner 930 May 197113 November 197127 October 1972OrbiterSuccess (first successful orbit)
      Soviet space programme Mars 219 May 197127 November 197122 August 1972OrbiterSuccess
      27 November 1971Lander, rover[55]Crashed on surface of Mars
      Soviet space programme Mars 328 May 19712 December 197122 August 1972OrbiterSuccess
      2 December 1971Lander, rover[55]Partial success. First successful landing; landed softly but ceased transmission within 15 seconds
      Soviet space programme Mars 421 July 197310 February 197410 February 1974OrbiterCould not enter orbit, made a close flyby
      Soviet space programme Mars 525 July 19732 February 197421 February 1974OrbiterPartial success. Entered orbit and returned data, but failed within 9 days[126]
      Soviet space programme Mars 65 August 197312 March 197412 March 1974LanderPartial success. Data returned during descent but not after landing on Mars
      Soviet space programme Mars 79 August 19739 March 19749 March 1974LanderLanding probe separated prematurely; entered heliocentric orbit
      National Aeronautics and Space Administration, USA Viking 120 August 197520 July 197617 August 1980OrbiterSuccess
      13 November 1982LanderSuccess
      National Aeronautics and Space Administration, USA Viking 29 September 19753 September 197625 July 1978OrbiterSuccess
      11 April 1980LanderSuccess
      Soviet space programme Phobos 17 July 19882 September 1988OrbiterContact lost while en route to Mars[127]
      LanderNot deployed
      Soviet space programme Phobos 212 July 198829 January 198927 March 1989OrbiterPartial success: entered orbit and returned some data. Contact lost just before deployment of landers
      LandersNot deployed
      Mission (1990–1999)LaunchArrival at MarsTerminationElementsOutcome
      National Aeronautics and Space Administration, USA Mars Observer25 September 199224 August 199321 August 1993OrbiterLost contact just before arrival
      National Aeronautics and Space Administration, USA Mars Global Surveyor7 November 199611 September 19975 November 2006OrbiterSuccess
      Russian Federal Space Agency Mars 9616 November 199617 November 1996Orbiter, lander, penetratorLaunch failure
      National Aeronautics and Space Administration, USA Mars Pathfinder4 December 19964 July 199727 September 1997Lander, roverSuccess
      National Space Development Agency of Japan Nozomi (Planet-B)3 July 19989 December 2003OrbiterComplications while en route; Never entered orbit[128]
      National Aeronautics and Space Administration, USA Mars Climate Orbiter11 December 199823 September 199923 September 1999OrbiterCrashed on surface due to metric-imperial mix-up
      National Aeronautics and Space Administration, USA Mars Polar Lander3 January 19993 December 19993 December 1999LanderCrash-landed on surface due to improper hardware testing
      National Aeronautics and Space Administration, USA Deep Space 2(DS2)Hard landers
      Mission (2000–2009)LaunchArrival at MarsTerminationElementsOutcome
      National Aeronautics and Space Administration, USA 2001 Mars Odyssey7 April 200124 October 2001Currently operationalOrbiterSuccess
      European Space Agency Mars Express2 June 200325 December 2003Currently operationalOrbiterSuccess
      European Space Agency Beagle 26 February 2004LanderLanded safely but failed to fully deploy, blocking access to its radio antennas.[129]
      National Aeronautics and Space Administration, USA MER-A Spirit10 June 20034 January 200422 March 2011RoverSuccess
      National Aeronautics and Space Administration, USA MER-B Opportunity7 July 200325 January 2004Currently operationalRoverSuccess
      European Space Agency Rosetta2 March 200425 February 2007Currently operationalFlyby/Gravity assist en route to comet67P/Churyumov-GerasimenkoSuccessful Mars flyby.
      National Aeronautics and Space Administration, USA Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter12 August 200510 March 2006Currently operationalOrbiterSuccess
      National Aeronautics and Space Administration, USA Phoenix4 August 200725 May 200810 November 2008LanderSuccess
      National Aeronautics and Space Administration, USA Dawn27 September 200717 February 2009Currently operationalGravity assist to VestaSuccess
      Mission (2010–2019)LaunchArrival at MarsTerminationElementsOutcome
      Russian Federal Space Agency Fobos-Grunt8 November 20118 November 2011Phobos lander, sample returnFailed to leave Earth orbit.[130] Fell back to Earth.[131]
      China National Space Administration Yinghuo-18 November 2011Orbiter
      National Aeronautics and Space Administration, USA MSL Curiosity26 November 20116 August 2012Currently operationalRoverSuccess
      Indian Space Research Organisation Mars Orbiter Mission5 November 201324 September 2014Currently operationalOrbiterIn orbit and operational[132]
      National Aeronautics and Space Administration, USA MAVEN18 November 201322 September 2014Currently operationalOrbiterIn orbit and operational [75]

      Planned missions[edit]

      NameEstimated
      launch
      ElementsNotes
      European Space Agency Russian Federal Space Agency ExoMars TGOMarch 14, 2016OrbiterMapping methane sources on Mars.
      European Space Agency SchiaparellilanderAtmospheric measurements and testing of technology.
      National Aeronautics and Space Administration, USA InSight5 May 2018 [85]LanderStudy interior structure of Mars.
      National Aeronautics and Space Administration, USA MarCO2 probes, flybyTo provide telemetry during atmospheric entry and landing.
      Russian Federal Space Agency ExoMars Surface Platform2020[86]LanderMeteorological tests, and deployment of rover.
      European Space Agency Russian Federal Space Agency ExoMars RoverRoverSearch for the existence of past or present life on Mars.
      National Aeronautics and Space Administration, USA Mars 20202020RoverAstrobiology objectives; rover is based on the Curiosity rover.[133]
      Emirates_Institution_for_Advanced_Science_and_Technology, UAE Mars Hope2020OrbiterAtmospheric studies; would become the first Arab probe to Mars.[100]
      China Chinese mission2020Orbiter, rover[134][135]

      Proposals under study[edit]

      NameEstimated
      launch
      ElementsNotes
      Finnish Meteorological Institute MetNet precursor2015 or later[93]Single impact lander testPrecursor for multi-lander network.[136]
      Finnish Meteorological Institute MetNetafter precursor[93]Multi-lander networkSimultaneous meteorological measurements at multiple locations.[93][136]
      National Aeronautics and Space Administration, USA Mars Geyser Hopper2016LanderWould have the ability to fly or "hop" at least twice from its landed location to reposition itself close to a CO2 geyser site.
      Canada Northern Light2018Lander, roverMission designed by Canadian organisations and Thoth Technology Inc.[137]
      Indian Space Research Organisation Mangalyaan 22018-2020[138]Orbiter, landerMars orbiter and lander launched by a GSLV launcher.[87][139]
      National Aeronautics and Space Administration, USA Icebreaker Life2018 or 2020Stationary landerBased on the 2008 Phoenix lander, would perform astrobiology tests on sub-surface ice.[140]
      National Aeronautics and Space Administration, USA PADME2020OrbiterWould study Phobos and Deimos [141][142]
      Netherlands Mars One Demo2020LanderThe first demonstration is proposed for launch in 2016.[143][144][dated info]
      Netherlands Mars One ComSat2020OrbiterCommunications satellite.
      United States Inspiration Mars Foundation2021Manned flybyPrivate mission to send two humans around Mars on a free return trajectory, without landing.[145]
      Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency Mars Moon Sample Return2021-2022[146]Lander, sample returnSample return from either Phobos or Deimos.[147]
      United States Red Dragon2022LanderFalcon Heavy rocket with a Dragon capsule; would look for biosignatures.[148][149]
      European Space Agency Network20223 landersMeteorological network concept.[150]
      United States Mars 20222022Orbiter[151]Communications relay
      Netherlands Mars One Rover2022RoverRover to select location for colony.[152]
      European Space Agency Phootprint2024Lander and ascent stageMars moon sample return mission.[153][154]
      Russian Federal Space Agency Fobos-Grunt (repeat mission)2024Lander, ascent stagePhobos sample return.[155]
      Netherlands Mars One20245 landers, roverTwo living units, two life support units and a supply units, with a second rover.[152]
      Netherlands Mars One2026Manned missionColony.[152]
      Netherlands Mars One "Team Two"2028Manned missionFour more colonists.[152]
      Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency MELOS2020sroverVersion 2 includes a rover and maybe a small aircraft[156]
      Russian Federal Space Agency Mars-Grunt2020sOrbiter, lander, ascent stageSingle launch Mars sample return.
      National Aeronautics and Space Administration, USA BOLD2020s6 landersThe Biological Oxidant and Life Detection would perform astrobiology tests on sub-surface soil.[157][158]

      Undeveloped concepts[edit]

      • Mars 4NM and Mars 5NM – projects intended by the Soviet Union for heavy Marsokhod (in 1973 according to initial plan of 1970) and Mars sample return (planned for 1975) missions by launching on N1 (rocket) that has never flown successfully.[159]
      • Mars 5M (Mars-79) – double-launching Soviet sample return mission planned to 1979 but cancelled due to complexity and technical problems
      • Vesta - the multiaimed Soviet mission, developed in cooperation with European countries for realisation in 1991–1994 but canceled due to the Soviet Union disbanding, included the flyby of Mars with delivering the aerostat and small landers or penetrators followed by flybys of 1 Ceres or 4 Vesta and some other asteroids with impact of penetrator on the one of them.
      • Voyager-Mars – USA, 1970s – Two orbiters and two landers, launched by a single Saturn V rocket.
      • Mars Aerostat – Russian/French balloon part for cancelled Vesta mission and then for failed Mars 96 mission,[160] originally planned for the 1992 launch window, postponed to 1994 and then to 1996 before being cancelled.[161]
      • Mars Environmental Survey – set of 16 landers planned for 1999–2009
      • Mars-98 – Russian mission including an orbiter, lander, and rover, planned for 1998 launch opportunity as repeat of failured Mars 96 mission and cancelled due to lack of funding
      • Mars Surveyor 2001 Lander – October 2001 – Mars lander (refurbished, became Phoenix lander)
      • Beagle 3 – 2009 British lander mission meant to search for life, past or present.
      • NetLander – 2007 or 2009 – Mars netlanders
      • Mars Telecommunications Orbiter – September 2009 – Mars orbiter for telecommunications
      • Sky-Sailor – 2014 – Plane developed by Switzerland to take detailed pictures of Mars surface
      • Mars Astrobiology Explorer-Cacher – 2018 rover
      • Kitty Hawk – Mars airplane micromission, proposed for December 17, 2003, the centennial of the Wright brothers' first flight.[162] Its funding was eventually given to the 2003Mars Network project.[163]
      • Tumbleweed rover.[164]

      See also[edit]